Corresponding author: Yu Ito (
Academic editor: Augustine Doronila
The flora of Tropical Asia is among the richest in the world, yet the actual diversity is estimated to be much higher than previously reported. Myanmar and Thailand are adjacent countries that together occupy more than the half the area of continental Tropical Asia. This geographic area is diverse ecologically, ranging from cool-temperate to tropical climates, and includes from coast, rainforests and high mountain elevations. An updated checklist of aquatic plants, which includes 78 species in 44 genera from 24 families, are presented based on floristic works. This number includes seven species, that have never been listed in the previous floras and checklists. The species (excluding non-indigenous taxa) were categorized by five geographic groups with the exception of to reflect the rich diversity of the countries' floras.
Myanmar and Thailand, adjacent countries, comprise more than half of the tropical region for continental Asia. Situated within the Indo-Myanmar (Burma) hot-spot, this area is among the richest in biodiversity in the World (
The aquatic floras of Myanmar and Thailand have been separately investigated. The Flora of Thailand project was launched in the 70’s, led by European and Thai herbaria and institutions. The aquatic species were treated in separated volumes (Table
The aquatic plant specimens treated in this study come from field works carried out in 2006 (Myanmar), 2008 (Myanmar), and 2012 (Thailand). Plants were hand-collected from aquatic environments e.g. ponds and lakes. Occasionally collections were made by boat (Fig.
Native to the Americas.
India (Southern [Andaman Isl.]), ?Myanmar, Thailand.
Fig.
Bangladesh, China (Southern), India (nationwide), ?Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Papua New guinea, ?Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, ?Vietnam.
Bangladesh, India (nationwide), Myanmar, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Sri Lanka.
Worldwide.
?Cambodia, India (north), Japan, Korea, ?Laos, Myanmar, ?Philippines, Thailand, ?Vietnam.
?Myanmar, Thailand.
Malaysia (Peninsular), Thailand.
Bangradesh, Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam.
Myanmar, ?Thailand.
Worldwide (mainly tropics).
Worldwide.
Bangladesh, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand; Africa; Oceania; N. America; S. America.
Bangladesh, China (Northern, Western, Southern [Taiwan, Yunnan]), India (Eastern, Northern), Indonesia (New Guinea), Japan, Malaysia (Sumatra), Myanmar, Papua New guinea, Pakistan, Philippines; Europe; Oceania; N. America; S. America.
Bangladesh, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi), Japan, Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand.
Bangladesh, ?Cambodia, India (nationwide), ?Indonesia, Japan, ?Laos, ?Malaysia, ?Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, ?Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, ?Vietnam; introduced in Americas.
China (North-Eastern, North-Western, South [Yunnan]), Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand; Europe; Oceania; N. America.
Bangladesh, China (North-Eastern, South [Yunnan]), Japan, India (North, South, West), Indonesia (Sulawesi, New Guinea), Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New guinea, Thailand, ?Vietnam; Africa; Europe; Oceania.
Myanmar (
Native to Americas; naturalized to tropical Asia.
Bangladesh, ?Cambodia, China (Central, South), India (nationwide), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi), Malaysia (Peninsular), Nepal, Thailand, ?Vietnam.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Indonesia (Borneo, Java, Sulawesi), Japan, Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand; Oceania.
Bangladesh, China (Southern), India (Western, Central, Southern), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra), Japan, Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, ?Nepal, Papua New guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.
Bangladesh, China (Central, Southern), India (Western, Central, Southern), Indonesia (Java), Japan, Malaysia (Borneo, Peninsular), Myanmar, ?Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka; Oceania.
Bangladesh, China (nationwide), Cambodia, India (Western [Meghalaya]), Indonesia (Boreo, New Guinea, Sulawesi), Japan, Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Thailand.
Thailand.
Native to South America.
Native to North America.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), Indonesia (nationwide), Japan, Malaysia (nationwide), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Sri Lanka.
China (nationwide), Indonesia (Java, New Guinea, Sulawesi), Japan, ?Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, ?Vietnam; Oceania.
Bangladesh, China (Central, Southern), India (Central, Southern), Indonesia (Java, New Guinea, Sumatra, Sulawesi), Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, ?Vietnam; Africa; Oceania.
Bangladesh, India (Western, Central, Southern), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi), Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.
Worldwide.
India, Myanmar.
Fig.
Bangladesh, China (Southern), India (Eastern, Northern, Southern), Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; Yemen, and Sudan.
Fig.
Myanmar (
Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam; Africa, Australia.
?Cambodia, China (Southern [Hainan]), Myanmar, ?Thailand.
Bangladesh, China, India (nationwide), Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.
Cambodia, China (Southern), India (Eastern [Assam, Darjeeling]), Indonesia (Sulawesi), Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam.
Fig.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Japan, Korea, Laos, Malesia (Sumatra), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Vietnam; Worldwide.
China (North-eastern, Central, Southern [Yunnan]), Japan, Indonesia (Sumatra), Myanmar, Philippines.
China (North-eastern, Central, Southern [Yunnan]), Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines; Europe.
Bangladesh, China (North-Eastern, Central [in part], Southern [Yunnan]), India (nationwide), Indonesia (New Guinea, Sumatra, Sulawesi), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; Africa, Europe, America.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), Japan, India (Northern, Eastern, Southern [in part]), Indonesia (Java), Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Vietnam; Africa; Oceania.
Myanmar (
Bangradesh, China (nationwide), India (Northern), Indonesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Lonbok, Sumatra), Japan, Malaysia (Borneo, Peninsular), Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Indonesia (Sumatra, Sulawesi), Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka; Worldwide.
Bangladesh, China (North-Eastern, Central, Southern), India (Southern), ?Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; Worldwide.
Thailand.
Lectotype was designated by Lekhak and Yadav (2012).
Fig.
Native to South America.
Malaysia (Peninsular), Thailand.
Bhutan, Bangladesh, ?Cambodia, China (South), India (nationwide), Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, ?Vietnam.
Fig.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), ?Indonesia, Japan, Korea, ?Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand; Africa; Oceania.
Bangladesh, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Japan, ?Myanmar, Pakistan; Worldwide.
Bangladesh, ?Cambodia, China (Southern), India (Western, Southern), Japan, ?Laos, ?Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, ?Vietnam.
Worldwide.
Native to tropics in Asia and Oceania.
Native in South America, naturalized in Asia, Oceania, and North America.
China (nationwide), Japan, Myanmar; Europe.
Bangladesh, China (Southern), India (nationwide), Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, ?Vietnam.
Bangladesh, China (Southern), India (Eastern, Southern), Indonesia, Malaysia (Penninsular, Borneo), Myanmar, ?Pakistan, Thailand; Australia.
India, ?Myanmar, Thailand.
Fig.
Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.
China (Southern [Taiwan]), India, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra), ?Japan, Malaysia (Borneo), ?Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand; ?Australia.
Fig.
Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, China (nationwide), India (Northern [Jammu and Kashmir], Southern [Tamil Nadu]), Japan, ?Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka; Cosmopolitan.
Cambodia, China (Eastern), India, Malaysia, ?Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.
Bangladesh, ?Cambodia, China (South), India (nationwide), ?Indonesia, Japan, ?Laos, ?Malaysia, Myanmar, ?Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, ?Vietnam; Africa; Oceania.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, ?Cambodia, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), ?Indonesia (Java), Japan, ?Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, ?Vietnam.
Bangladesh, India (Western [Orissa, West Bengal]), Myanmar, Thailand; Australia.
Bangladesh, China (Central, South), India (nationwide), Japan, Malesia (throughout), Nepal, Pakistan; Oceania.
Bhutan, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra), Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka; Africa, Europe, Oceania.
Bangladesh, China (nationwide), India (nationwide), Indonesia (nationwide), Japan, Malaysia (nationwide), Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, ?Vietnam; Africa; Oceania; N. America; S. America.
China (South), Indonesia (Sumatra), Malaysia (Borneo, Malaya), Myanmar, Thailand, ?Vietnam.
Bangladesh, India (nationwide), Myanmar, Nepal, Sri lanka; Africa.
Fig.
India (Southern), Papua New Guinea, Thailand; Oceania.
Fig.
Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam.
Cambodia, China (Southern [Taiwan]), Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam.
Fig.
Bangladesh, ?Cambodia, China, India (nationwide), ?Indonesia, Japan, ?Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, ?Vietnam; Oceania; N. America; S. America.
The 78 species were classified into six geographic categories: Widespread; Eurasian cool-temperate; Asia – Australia; Tropical Asia; Pan-Tropics; invasive (Table
Altogether, we identified 380 specimens, excluding 31 duplicates, belonging to 75 species of 41 genera from 23 plant families; the remaining 3 species belonging to 3 genera of 3 families were listed with no voucher specimens. Geographically the species distribution pattern can be classified into six categories: Widespread; Eurasian cool-temperate; Asia – Australia; Tropical Asia; Pan-Tropics; and Invasive.
This category is mostly congruent with 'Widespread Species' of
The species clustered in this category are distributed mainly in cool-temperate region of Eurasia, thus limiting the distribution to a small portion of Southeast Asia (Myanmar: Shan state; Thailand: Northern states).
The species included in this category have a distribution in either Australia or East Asia or both, e.g., Australia:
This category comprises the largest number of species for the aquatic floras of Myanmar and Thailand. Some of the species included are endemic or narrowly distributed e.g.,
On a species level, the distribution is further classified into three groups: 1) Indo-China, 2) Southeast Asian, and 3) endemic to Myanmar and Thailand. The first group includes
This category with eight species is mostly congruent with 'Pan-tropical Species' of
The aquatic floras of Myanmar and Thailand have well known invasive aquatic species including
The authors would like to thank R. Pooma, S. Saengrit, N. Suphuntee (BKF), T. Koyama, Nb. Tanaka (MBK), J. Murata, T. Ohi-Toma, A. Shimizu (TI), Nr. Tanaka (TNS), A. Naiki (RYU), T. Sugawara (MAK), U. Htun Paw Oo, and U. Soe Win Hlaing (Myanmar).
Collecting aquatic plants in a lake (Myanmar).
Aquatic plant families treated in volumes of Flora of Thailand.
Volume | Family | Reference |
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Volume 5 part 2 |
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Volume 7 part 2 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 7 part 3 |
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Volume 9 part 1 |
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Volume 9 part 2 |
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Volume 11 part 2 |
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Volume 11 part 2 |
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Volume 12 part 2 |
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A classification of aquatic plants in Myanmar and Thailand in distribution.
Widespread | Eurasian cool-temperate | Asia – Australia | Asian tropics | Pan-Tropics | Invasive |
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