Species conservation profile of moths (Insecta, Lepidoptera) from Azores, Portugal

Abstract Background The few remnants of Azorean native forests harbour a unique set of endemic moths (Insecta, Lepidoptera), some of them under severe long term threats due to small sized habitats or climatic changes. In this contribution, we present the IUCN Red List profiles of 34 endemic moths to the Azorean archipelago, including species belonging to two diverse families: Noctuidae (11 species) and Crambidae (eight species). The objective of this paper is to assess all endemic Azorean moth species and advise on possible future research and conservation actions critical for the long-trem survival of the most endangered species. New information Most species have a large distribution (i.e. 58% occur in at least four islands), very large extent of occurrence (EOO) and a relatively large area of occupancy (AOO). Only nine species are single-island endemics, three of them from Flores, three from São Miguel and one from Pico, São Jorge and Faial. Most of the species also experience continuing decline in habitat quality, number of locations and subpopulations caused by the ongoing threat from pasture intensification, forestry, invasive plant species and future climatic changes. The lack of new records may indicate that one of the species previously named is extinct (Eupithecia ogilviata). Therefore, we suggest as future conservation actions: (1) a long-term species monitoring plan and (2) control of invasive species.


Introduction
Knowledge on Lepidoptera from the Azorean archipelago is still scarce and skewed towards the diurnal species of Rhopalocera ). Most of the published work on Azorean Lepidoptera are species lists containing information such as locality, capture date, collectors and brief taxonomic annotations (Carvalho et al. 1999). The first taxonomic studies on Azorean Lepidoptera in Azores consisted of the description of new species only presenting a detailed description of the wing pattern (Warren 1905, Rebel 1940. Subsequently, new explorations of the insular entomofauna revealed new taxa, whose taxonomic descriptions were expanded with information about the morphology of genitalia and how to distinguish them from related species (Pinker 1971, Meyer et al. 1997, Nuss et al. 1997. The number of endemic species of Lepidoptera in the Azores has continued to increase in the last years. Recent studies focus not only on species description, but also on the ecology and distribution of new taxa, providing crucial information towards the conservation of these taxa (Wagner 2014, Wagner 2015a. In this contribution, we present the IUCN Red List profiles of 34 moth species endemic to the Azores, including 11 owlet moths (Noctuidae), eight grass moths (Crambidae), three geometer moths (Geometridae), three Stathmopodidae, three ermine moths (Yponomeutidae), two snout moths or pyralid moths (Pyralidae), one twirler moth or gelechiid moth (Gelechiidae), one leaf-miner moth (Gracillaridae), one plume moth (Pterophoridae) and one fungus moth or tineid moth (Tineidae), which represent the majority of families present in the Azores .
Several of the endemic taxa here listed are known from a single collected individual, so that one of the sexes is unknown. The lack of reference collections for species identification and the low abundance of collected specimens for some taxa stresses the need for further studies that will allow a better understanding of the Lepidoptera fauna of the Azores.
The main objectives of this contribution are: 1) provide updated information on the distribution, abundance and ecology for the 34 Azorean endemic moths; 2) identification of the major threats involving these species; 3) the evaluation of the species conservation profiles for all known Azorean endemic moth species.

Materials and Methods
To perform the IUCN Red List profiles, we followed the same procedure as in ,  and Cardoso et al. (2017): i) the original species descriptions were investigated to learn about the habitats and ecology of the species; ii) recent literature was also consulted to obtain information about synonyms and critical information for the taxonomic notes; iii) for the calculation of AOO and EOO, we consulted the Azorean Biodiversity Portal and downloaded CSV files with the distribution of each species; iv) species images were obtained from specimens deposited in Coll. ZMUC (Credit: Anders Illum) and also from the repository available at the Azorean Biodiversity Portal, the most important source of information on Azorean biodiversity. Species distributions in the Azores were obtained from the list of Azorean biota ) with the addition of recently described species (Wagner 2014, Wagner 2015a, Wagner 2015b, Wagner 2017).
Prior to the calculation of area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO), the 500 m × 500 m cells obtained from Azorean Biodiversity Portal were filtered to consider only the cells with high level of precision: 1 -very precise locality, usually with known UTM data; and 2 -literature locality not exceeding 25 km . The centroid for each cell was calculated to obtain the distribution points for each species. The calculation of AOO and EOO was performed using the Geospatial Conservation Assessment Tool (GeoCAT) and using an approximation to the standard IUCN 2 km × 2 km cells (4 km ). Final maps with species distributions were produced using the IUCN standards with Google Earth (.kmz files).
Critical information on species threats and conservation were mostly obtained from Triantis et al. (2010) and Ferreira et al. (2016). Eudonia interlinealis (Warren, 1905)  In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting & alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, S. Miguel and S. Maria islands). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address future threats due to climate

Map of records (Google Earth):
Macaronesian Region, the species was transferred to Eudonia due to a detailed analysis of genitalia characters (Nuss et al. 1997). Eudonia luteusalis is distinguished from other species of genus Eudonia by the following characters: wing pattern of predominantly yellow ochre. Similar to E. interlinialis but is distinguished by the presence of an uncus distally slightly shorter and distally broader in the male genitalia (Nuss et al. 1997).

Region for assessment:
-Global Eudonia luteosalis (Hampson, 1907)  In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting & alteration). Eudonia melanographa was described by Hampson (1907) in the genus Scoparia as from wing pattern characters. In a taxonomic revision of the Scopariinae from Macaronesian Region, the species was transferred to Eudonia due to a detailed analysis of genitalia characters (Nuss et al. 1997). Eudonia melanographa is distinguished from other species of genus Eudonia by the following characters: wing pattern with forewings long and narrow, predominantly black, sprinkled with white. In the male genitalia, valva ventro-distally with a pointed process (Nuss et al. 1997).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Stable
Eudonia melanographa has five subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Yes
The species occurs in native forest of Azorean islands, with an altitudinal range between 10-800 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat.
Major Importance -1.4. Forest -Temperate -3.4. Shrubland -Temperate The adults fly from March to October and they rest and fly around rupicolous lichens (Nuss et al. 1997), with probably two generations per year. The larva is unknown, but considered to be a specialist herbivore and the adult is frequently seen as a pollinator. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting & alteration).

Conservation
In Place The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Flores, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and São Miguel). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. A monitoring plan for the invertebrate community is necessary in the habitat in order to contribute to the conservation of this species. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva, to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas of most of the islands of Azores and to obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate commmunity of this habitat. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). Warren, 1905 Species information Scoparia aequipennalis was described by Warren (1905) and is distinguished from other species of genus Scoparia by the following characters: presence of a small group of four slightly bent cornuti connected at their bases in the phallus of the male genitalia and ductus bursae beyond corpus bursae thickened and with one loop (Nuss et al. 1997).

Region for assessment:
-Global  The species occurs in native forests of mid-high altitude in all the islands (Azores). Altitudinal range: 10-2200 m.
Decline (observed) In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In the past, the species subpopulations have probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, São Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. A monitoring plan is necessary for the invertebrate community in the habitat in order to contribute to the conservation of this species. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
This species is not utilised. Further research is needed into this species ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva. Also important will be the promotion of expeditions to find extant specimens in additional natural native forests of mid-high elevation in all the islands of Azores and obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Taxonomy Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Lepidoptera Crambidae Scoparia carvalhoi was described by Nuss et al. (1997) and is distinguished from other species of genus Scoparia by the following characters: male genitalia with sickle-shaped cornutus in the central part of phallus and two smaller cornuti at the base of phallus and female genitalia with ductus bursae not looped, but with a bow anterior to ductus seminalis (Nuss et al. 1997).

Region for assessment:
-Global Scoparia carvalhoi is an endemic species present in the islands of Faial, Pico, Terceira and Santa Maria (Azores, Portugal) (Nuss et al. 1997, known from native forest. Within these four islands, it is known from two Natural Forest Reserves of Caldeira do Faial (Faial) and Pico Alto (Santa Maria).

Stable
Scoparia carvalhoi is restricted but relatively abundant in some of the locations with native forest. We assume a stable population, but with a tendency to decline in the number of individuals that is inferred from the ongoing habitat degradation due to invasions of alien plants and from human activities.

No
Yes Unknown Unknown

Subpopulations
Stable Scoparia carvalhoi has four subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Yes
The species occurs in native forests of medium to high altitude in the Faial, Pico, Terceira and Santa Maria islands (Azores). Altitudinal range: 100-700 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat.  In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -

Common names:
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Faial, Pico, Terceira and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to find extant specimens. A monitoring plan is necessary for the invertebrate community in the habitat in order to contribute to the conservation of this species. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into this species ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva. Also important will be the promotion of expeditions to find extant specimens in additional natural native forests of mid-high elevation in all the islands of Azores and obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Species information
Grass Moth (English); Traça (Portuguese) Scoparia coecimaculalis was described by Warren (1905) and is distinguished from other species of genus Scoparia by the following characters: male genitalia with a valva down-curved and phallus without cornutii and female genitalia with a base of ductus bursae thickened and with one loop before ductus seminalis (Nuss et al. 1997).

Region for assessment:
-Global  Scoparia coecimaculalis Warren, 1905 from Pico (Azores, Portugal)  In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting andalteration).

Conservation
In Place - The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, São Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva, to find extant specimens in additional natural native forests of midhigh altitude in all the islands of Azores and to obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate commmunity of this habitat. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Lepidoptera Crambidae Scoparia semiamplalis was described by Warren (1905) and is distinguished from other species of genus Scoparia by the following characters: wing pattern with the forewings shinning black and yellow, male genitalia without cornutii in the phallus and female genitalia without ductus bursae without loops (Nuss et al. 1997).

Stable
Scoparia semiamplalis has six subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -

Common names:
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Faial, Flores, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, São Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threats by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrates in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to earn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva, to find extant specimens in additional natural native forests of midhigh altitude in all the islands of Azores and to obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrates in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 Udea azorensis was described by Meyer et al. (1997) and is distinguished from other species of the genus Udea, especially of Udea ferrugalis (Hübner, 1796) by the following characters: appearance of wing pattern similar to U. ferrugalis but is distinguished by the larger wingspan and the more contrasting drawing of the hindwings; valva distally narrow with a mediobasal process small and thorny, juxta distinctly U-shaped, phallus with cresciform cornutus in the male genitalia; antrum sclerotised, ductus bursae and ductus seminalis thickened and sclerotised. Corpus bursae large, oval with signum almond-shaped (Meyer et al. 1997). The species was also recorded for Azores as: Udea delineatalis (Walker, 1875) (misidentification); Udea numeralis (Hübner, 1796) (misidentification)

Region for assessment:
-Global

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In addition, some of the semi-natural grasslands were replaced by intensive pastures. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Managment of semi-natural pastures is critical for the conservation of this species. In some islands, the input of fertilisers is increasing. The spread of some invasive plants can also be a problem (e.g. Hedychium gardnerianum). These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Flores, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and São Miguel). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebratse in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva, to find extant specimens in additional habitats with native herbaceous vegetation areas of most islands of Azores and to obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrates community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 Brachmia infuscatella was described by Rebel (1940) and is distinguished from other species of genus Brachmia by the wing pattern description. It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon from the description of male, female genitalia and DNA barcode to compare with other species of its genus.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Trend:
Brachmia infuscatella is an endemic species present in Faial, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and Santa Maria islands (Azores, Portugal) , known from native habitats (see Rebel 1940). It is known from the Natural Forest Reserve of Pico Alto (Santa Maria).

13,000
Decline (inferred) The species is widely distributed occurring in five islands. However, there are ongoing severe threats on most sites. In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
The species is rare (low number of specimens known) and is known from populations in several elevation areas of the Faial, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and Santa Maria islands. A decline in the number of individuals is probably due to the degradation of habitat caused by human activities and invasions of alien plants. The species is rare and a decline is probable due to the degradation of habitat caused by human activities and invasions of alien plants.

Decline (inferred)
Brachmia infuscatella has five subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents decline in subpopulations due to the degradation of habitat caused by human activities and presence of invasive plants. Brachmia infuscatella occurs in several habitats and in several islands of the Azorean arquipelago (Faial, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and Santa Maria). Altitudinal range: 10-800 m.

Decline (observed)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat.  In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants (Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum) are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on research by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Pico and Santa Maria). Further research is needed to monitor the species and conservation measures to control the invasive Hedychium gardnerianum and Pittosporum undulatum should be implemented to improve habitat quality for this species. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva, to find extant specimens in additional natural areas of most islands of Azores and obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Lepidoptera Geometridae Cyclophora azorensis was described by Prout (1920) as a subspecies azorensis of Cyclophora maderensis (Bethune-Baker, 1891) and its range was erected from a detailed comparative analysis of genitalia (Meyer 1991). Cyclophora azorensis is extremely variable in colouration of the wing pattern, but can distinguished from other species of genus Cyclophora by the configuration of the male genitalia (Fischer and Ivinskis 2008).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Number of locations:
Cyclophora azorensis is an endemic species present in the islands of the Corvo, Flores, Faial, Pico, Graciosa, S. Jorge, Terceira, S. Miguel and Santa Maria (Azores, Portugal) , known from all habitats in which the host plant Erica azorica grows, but it is especially common in medium/higher altitudes where there are remnants of Laurisilva forest, being known from all Azorean Natural Forest Reserves: Caldeiras Funda e Rasa and Morro Alto e Pico da Sé (Flores); Caldeira do Faial and Cabeço do Fogo (Faial); Mistério da Prainha, Caveiro and Caiado (Pico); Pico Pinheiro and Topo (S. Jorge); Biscoito da Ferraria, Pico Galhardo, Caldeira Guilherme Moniz, Caldeira Sta. Bárbara e Mistérios Negros and Terra Brava (Terceira); Atalhada, Graminhais and Pico da Vara (S. Miguel) and Pico Alto (Santa Maria).

Stable
The species is widely distributed, occurring in all nine islands. Despite some threats (see below), the species keeps stable subpopulations.

Stable
The species is very common and well known from several subpopulations. The maintained number of mature individuals is inferred from monitoring schemes (sampled since 1999 by BALA project).

Stable
Cyclophora azorensis has eight subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the canopy of endemic trees. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Terrestrial
Yes Cyclophora azorensis occurs in native forest (dominated by Laurus azorica, Juniperus brevifolia and Erica azorica) of all islands and also in all habitats in which the host plant (Erica azorica) grows, being especially common in higher altitudes (above 500 m a.s.l.) where there are remnants of laurel forest. Altitudinal range: 10-1800 m. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently, the host plant Erica azorica is expanding and has stable population In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). The species is considered common in the native vegetation. The most important ongoing threat to this species is the spread of invasive plants (e.g. Hedychium gardnerianum and Clethra arborea in S. Miguel) that are changing the habitat structure. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on research by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, S. Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas dominated by Laurus azorica, Juniperus brevifolia and Erica azorica (host plant) of Azores islands and obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate commmunity of this habitat. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). Eupithecia ogilviata (Warren, 1905)

Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Lepidoptera Geometridae Eupithecia ogilviata was described by Warren (1905) in the genus Tephroclystia from wing pattern characters and was transferred to Eupithecia. A single male has been collected from Faial. It is necessary to collect more individuals and have more information about morphological characters to clarify the identity of the taxon. Observed It is known just from one single male captured in Faial in May 1903 (Warren 1905).

750
Eupithecia ogilviata is a single-island endemic species from Faial (Azores, Portugal) (Warren 1905. We assume that this species is probably extinct in Azores.

0-4 Stable
The species is considered extinct in the historical locality possibly due to habitat destruction. Not sampled during the last century despite some intensive field work. The species is likely extinct in the historical locality possibly due to habitat destruction. Not sampled recently despite some intensive field work.

No
No Unknown Unknown

0-1
The species is potentially extinct due to destruction of the habitat in all its range.

Stable
Possibly extinct.

Stable
The species is only known from a single subpopulation that occurred in the Laurel forest of Central Faial. We assume that this species is probably extinct due to the removal of native forest in the historical locality.

Stable
The species is only known from a single subpopulation that occurred in the Laurel forest of Central Faial. We assume that this species is probably extinct due to the removal of native forest in the historical locality.

Terrestrial Yes
Eupithecia ogilviata is only known from Central part of Faial island. It has been sampled in a laurel forest, that was later destroyed and therefore this species is considered probably extinct. Altitudinal range: 700-750 m.

Decline (inferred)
There is no information about the habitat.
Major Importance Unknown This is a phytophagous species.

Threats
Ongoing -8.1.2. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases -Invasive non-native/ alien species/diseases -Named species -12. Other options -Other threat In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality. The major land-use changes in the island in the last 100 years resulted in the deforestation of the original patch of native forest between 700 and 750 m. If the species is still surviving in any small patch of modified forest, the current and future threats are the invasive plant Hedychium gardnerianum.

. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in a regionally protected area (Natural Park of Faial). Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva and find extant specimens. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by invasive species and climate change. A monitoring plan is necessary for the invertebrate community in the habitat in order to contribute to the conservation of this species.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into the species ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva, to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas of the Faial (unique locality since now) and to obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. It is also necessary to establish an area-based management plan and a monitoring plan for the invertebrate community in the habitat in order to contribute towards a species potential recovery plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). Due to the fact that several larger, endemic moths have been found in the Azores in recent years, it is not impossible that this rather small, inconspicuous species can still be found.

Taxonomy
Xanthorhoe inaequata was described by Warren (1905) and can distinguished from other species of genus Xanthorhoe by the configuration of the male genitalia (Fischer and Ivinskis 2008).

Region for assessment:
-Global apparently has currently a stable population, but it greatly depends of the conservation of both native forest fragments and the semi-natural vegetation.

Stable
Xanthorhoe inaequata has six subpopulations, all of them relatively high abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Terrestrial Yes
Xanthorhoe inaequata occurs in several habitats with native and naturalised herbaceous vegetation in the all Azorean islands. Altitudinal range: 10-1,400 m.

Stable
The species occurs in native forest and herbaceous vegetation, but has also adapted to naturalised plants. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants, Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on reaserch by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management

. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, S. Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas of all the islands of Azores and obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Species information
Gracilaria bistrigella Rebel, 1940 Leaf-Miner Moth (English); Lagarta mineira (Portuguese) Micrurapteryx bistrigella was described in the genus Gracilaria by Rebel (1940) from the description of the wing pattern but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Micrurapteryx by conducting a deeper analysis of the taxon (Karsholt and Vieira 2005). It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon from the description of male and female genitalia to compare with other species of its genus.

Region for assessment:
-Global Micrurapteryx bistrigella (Rebel, 1940) from Pico_ (Azores, Portugal) deposited in Coll. ZMUC (Credit: Anders Illum). This species is not abundant but it is widespread through the native vegetation of four islands and occurs in at least 5 locations under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
The species is a widespread and relatively abundant species in native plants from medium and hight altitudes (e.g. Hypericum foliosum, Morella faya) of several habitats in four islands (Azores). We assume that the species presents decreasing populations, due to the spread of invasive plants namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum which are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil and which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
Micrurapteryx bistrigiella has four subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the canopy of endemic trees. We assume that the species presents decreasing subpopulations, due to the spread of invasive plants namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum which are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil and which will impact the species habitat quality.

Terrestrial Yes
Micrurapteryx bistrigella occurs in several habitats with native vegetation in the four Azorean islands. Altitudinal range: 10-800 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently Cryptomeria japonica plantations management and invasive plants Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Flores, Pico, S. Jorge and Terceira). Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and confirm data on the feeding substrate of the larva and find extant specimens. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate commmunity of this habitat. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at mid elevations. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 Apamea ramonae was described by Wagner (2015a) and is distinguished from other species of genus Apamea by the following characters: the wing pattern with a base colour much darker, more uniform with less white elements, male genitalia with a tip of uncus broader rounded and the presence of two cornuti in the vesica of the phallus and female genitalia with a ductus bursae shorter than other species of the genus.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Nicola Mumford
Pedro Cardoso

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Observed
The extent of occurrence (EOO) is 12 km and the maximum estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is 12 km .

900
Apamea ramonae is single-island endemic species from Flores island, but it is possible that a small population exists in Corvo island (Azores, Portugal) (Wagner 2015a), known from native vegetation dominated by a mix of mosses as Sphagnum and grass tussocks as Festuca, but also at their sorroundings (between 400 and 900 m). This species occurs in the Natural Forest Reserve of Morro Alto e Pico da Sé (Flores).

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants namely Hedychium gardnerianum and Hydrangea macrophylla are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality. Midland habitat is under severe impact of agriculture activities.

Decline (inferred)
This species is rare in Flores island, occurring mostly in highland Juniperus brevifolia woodland wet habitats with Fetusca spp. grass and Sphagnum spp. moss (Wagner 2015a). A decline is inferred due to the degradation of habitat caused by human activities at mid elevations and invasions of alien plants (Hedychium gardnerianum, Hydrangea macrophylla) at mid to high elevations that are changing the structure of soil moss occupation (Sphagnum spp.) with impacts on the species. The species has one subpopulation in Flores. Currently, invasive plants, namely Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat in both islands. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns). In addition, Wagner (2015a) observed that, in Flores island, cattle are destroying lower embankments of Sphagnum through their weight ("cattle erosion") which impacts the species.

Yes
The species occurs mostly in highland Juniperus brevifolia woodland wet habitats with Fetusca spp. grass and Sphagnum spp. moss (Wagner 2015a). The species occurs in very wet embankments, slopes or more rarely also plain areas in open heathland between 400 and 900 m.

Decline (observed)
A decline is inferred due to the degradation of habitat caused by human activities at mid elevations and invasions of alien plants (Hedychium gardnerianum, Hydrangea macrophylla) at mid to high elevations that are changing the structure of soil moss occupation (Sphagnum spp.) with impacts on the species. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Hedychium gardnerianum and Hydrangea macrophylla, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. In addition, intensive agriculture and Cryptomeria japonica plantations are decreasing the available habitat. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in a regionally protected area (Natural Park of Flores). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. Further research is needed to obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. A survey in Corvo Island is needed to inform about the possibility of occurrence in this island. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is performing an area-based management plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 (2014) and is distinguished from other species of genus Apamea by the following characters: base colour reddish-brown, male genitalia with tip of uncus shortly pointed, not forked, short and very wide costal process cornuti and female genitalia with a wide ductus bursae and bulgepattern of bursa copulatrix (Wagner 2014). There are two subspecies: A. sphagnicola sphagnicola that occupy localities from S. Miguel and A. sphagnicola centralazorensis that occupy localities from Pico (Wagner 2014

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations have been made within this species' territory. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality. Cattle trampling in the habitat is also a major problem, with impacts on larvae.

Decline (observed)
This species is relatively abundant and occurs mostly in highland Juniperus brevifolia woodland wet habitats with Fetusca francoi grass and Sphagnum spp. moss (Wagner 2014, Wagner 2015a. A decline is inferred due to the degradation of habitat caused by human activities (agriculture, tourism) and invasions by alien plants. The species has two subpopulations, one in Pico and another in S. Miguel corresponding to two subspecies. Currently invasive plants, namely Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat in both islands. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns). In addition, Wagner (2015a) observed that in Pico Island cattle are destroying lower embankments of Sphagnum through their weight ("cattle erosion") which impacts the species. In S. Miguel, Wagner (2014) observed the impact of cattle in some of the sites, tourism activity (hiking in accessible parts) and large-scale collecting of Sphagnum mosses. Consequently, we assume a decline in number of subpopulations due to major threats.

Terrestrial Yes
A. sphagnicola occurs in wet embankments or steep slopes in open heathland or more rarely in open woodland mostly between elevations of 700-900 m (supposedly up to 1,100 m) at S. Miguel (Wagner 2014) and in steep, mainly shady places with Sphagnum mosses at Pico.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species population has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently, invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In addition, in Pico Island cattle are destroying lower embankments with Sphagnum through their weight ("cattle erosion") with impacts on the species. In S. Miguel, the impact of cattle in some of the sites, tourism activity (hiking in accessible parts) and large-scale collecting of Sphagnum mosses, are all decreasing the quality of the habitat (Wagner 2014, Wagner 2015a In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants, namely Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns). In addition, Wagner (2015a) observed that, in Pico Island, cattle are destroying lower embankments of Sphagnum through their weight ("cattle erosion") which impacts the species. In S. Miguel, Wagner (2014) observed the impact of cattle in some of the sites, tourism activity (hiking in accessible parts) and large-scale collecting of Sphagnum mosses. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration). The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in a regionally protected area (Natural Parks of Pico and S. Miguel). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate commmunity of this habitat. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed over the coming years. Education and awareness are needed to avoid large-scale collecting of Sphagnum mosses.

International
The species it not utilised. Further research is needed to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas in all Azorean islands and obtain information on population size, distribution and trends. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate commmunity of this Synonyms: Common names: Taxonomic notes:

Map of records (Google Earth):
habitat. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 This species is only known from a single specimen from São Jorge. To clarify the identity of the taxon, it is necessary to collect more individuals and obtain more information about morphological characters and molecular data. In the original description, H. azorica differs from other species of the same genus by a ground colour of forewing dark grey, uncus norrower and smaller, valva subapically broader and phallus with a subbasal cornutus, basally broader and double-peaked and other smaller narrower, basally membranous and the presence of a subapical spinoluse field larger than other species of the genus. This species occurs in one single native forest patch in São Jorge island under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. The historical location suffered major changes during the last 20 years and invasive plants are occuppying vast areas, destroying the original habitat.

Decline (inferred)
Probably the species is rare and only known from a single population in high elevation areas in São Jorge island (at Pico das Morgadas).

Decline (inferred)
The species is only known from a single population inhabiting in São Jorge. We assume that this population is declining or, in the worst case, the species is probably extinct.

Terrestrial Yes
Probably, the species is rare and only known from a single population in high elevation areas in São Jorge island (at Pico das Morgadas, 500 m a.s.l.) but can also occur in other places with native and naturalised plants like Caryophyllaceae.
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species (namely Pittosporum undulatum) are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration). The species is not protected by regional law. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations in São Jorge Island (only known at Pico das Morgadas, 500 m a.s.l.) or in other places with native and naturalised plants like Caryophyllaceae. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests and performingan area-based management plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Species information
Graphania granti granti Warren, 1905;Polia granti (Rebel, 1940); Mamestra granti (Warren, 1905)  Melanchra granti was described in the genus Melanchra by Warren 1905 but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Graphania by Meyer, 1995. Melanchra granti is distinguished from other species of genus Melanchra by the following characters: wing pattern show differences at level of species in the hindwing, male genitalia with differences in the morphology of the valva and phallo in relation to other close genera. This species is not particularly abundant and widespread through the native vegetation of three islands and occurs in at least four locations under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
The species is scattered and rare in Pico, Terceira and São Miguel islands (Azores), occurring mostly in uplands wet biotopes with native vegetation (larvae associated with grasses and mosses). There is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals, based on the ongoing threats.

Decline (inferred)
Melanchra granti has three subpopulations. All of them are in continuing decline due to human activity and the spread of invasive plants. Threat type:

Threats:
The species is rare and is scattered through a restricted number of suitable patches in three islands. At least 50% of its population can be found in subpopulations that are 1) smaller than would be required to support a viable population and 2) separated from other habitat patches by a large distance. In fact, the species occurs in fragments that are isolated in a matrix of pastures.

Yes
The species occurs preferably in the native forests of the Pico, Terceira and São Miguel islands (Azores), surrounded by plantations of exotic trees and pastures. Altitudinal range: 200-600 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently human activities in historical localities and invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. This species is probably a univoltine species, but the life cycle is unknown. Some adults were captured in light traps from January to July (Carvalho et al. 1999 In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in only one regionally protected area (Natural Park of Terceira). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years. Mesapamea storai is distinguished from other species of genus Mesapamea by the following characters: male genitalia with differences in the valva, clavus bent down hook, the neck of the cucullus very long, thin and directed upwards and vesica is equipped with a spike-braided crown (Pinker 1971).

Stable
This species is common in most Azorean islands except Santa Maria, being rare in terms of abundance at lower elevations (e.g. in Terceira island) (Vieira et al. 1998) and abundant at medium and high elevations, where it occurs mostly in native vegetation (Juniperus brevofilia and Laurus azorica forests), although it can also occur in exotic coniferous forests. This species presents a stable population.

Stable
Mesapamea storai has seven subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Terrestrial Yes
Mesapamea storai occurs at medium and high elevations in the Azorean islands except Santa Maria (above 350 m a.s.l.), preferably associated with native grasses (e.g. Holcus azoricus; Poaceae) of Juniperus brevifolia woodland forests as well as habitats located in and around exotic coniferous forests. Altitudinal range: 10-1000 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. Nevertheless, the species has also adapted to naturalised vegetation.

Conservation actions:
The larvae develop from autumn to spring and the moths fly readily to light from March to November (Vieira et al. 1998 In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al.

Justification for conservation actions
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and S. Miguel). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Since this species occurs in relict native Azorean forests, some awareness measures were put recently into practice using, for instance, images from extreme macro (see Fig. 13 and ).

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations associated with native grasses (e.g. Holcus azoricus; Poaceae) of Juniperus brevifolia woodland forests as well as habitats located in and around exotic coniferous forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Species information
Agrotis atlantica Warren, 1905  Noctua atlantica was described in the genus Agrotis by Warren 1905 but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Noctua by Pinker 1971. Noctua atlantica is distinguished from other species of genus Noctua by the following characters: wing pattern with a hindwing ochre-brown, male genitalia with differences in the morphology of the valva and phallo, emphasising the reduction of the projection of the cucullus.

Stable
Noctua atlantica has eight subpopulations, all of them relatively highly abundant in the native forest. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Yes
This species inhabits the uplands on Azorean islands except Santa Maria (above 600 m a.s.l.), preferably into native forest and also at their surroundings with grassy clearings as well as along sunny forest roads of exotic coniferous forests. Altitudinal range: 10-1000 m.

Decline (observed)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently, invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. Nevertheless, the species has also adapted to naturalised vegetation.

No
The larvae are polyphagous feeding on grasses and the adults are nearly present throughout the year, with individuals flying readily to light from April to November (Vieira et al. 1998); it has two generations per year at high elevations (Oliveira et al. 2004 In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and S. Miguel). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations associated with surroundings with grassy clearings as well as along sunny forest roads of exotic coniferous forests. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 Noctua carvalhoi was described in the genus Sineugraphe by Pinker 1983 but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Noctua by Fibiger 1993. Noctua carvalhoi is distinguished from other species of genus Noctua by the following characters: dark wing pattern in relation to the rest of species, male genitalia with a long uncus, pointed valva, powerful ampulla and the phallo short and thick, a tiny curnutus present (Pinker 1983).

1000
Noctua carvalhoi is an endemic species occurring in Flores, Faial, Pico, S. Jorge and Terceira islands (Azores, Portugal) , known from laurel forest (with ferns, Calluna vulgaris and mosses) but also in other areas of exotic and naturalised plants (Wagner 2015b). Within these five islands, it is known from three Natural Forest Reserves of Caldeira do Faial and Cabeço do Fogo (Faial) and Biscoito da Ferraria (Terceira).

Extent of occurrence
10,900

Stable
The species is widely distributed occurring in five islands. Habitat specialist:

Habitat (narrative):
The species is widespread but has low abundancy in native and exotic vegetation of five islands and occurs in at least 11 locations under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulartum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
This species has low populations in Flores, Faial, Pico, S. Jorge and Terceira islands (Azores), occurring mostly in the native vegetation at medium and high elevations of these islands, but also in exotic vegetation. This species presents declined populations. This species occurs mostly in areas of native forest, but also at their surroundings and in other modified biotopes. Altitudinal range: 50-1,000 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. The larvae are polyphagous on herbs and small shrubs like Rubus spp., being recorded on Scrophularia spp. and Rubus spp. in Flores Island; they feed at night and immature stages occur from autumn to spring and larvae mature between early March and early May; the adult flies in summer and seem to aestivate (Wagner 2017 In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly from the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting andalteration).

Conservation
In Place The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Faial, Flores, Pico, S. Jorge). Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva and to find extant specimens. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations. A monitoring plan is also necessary for the invertebrate community in the habitat in order to contribute to forming a species potential recovery plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 Phlogophora cabrali was recorded originally as Eumichtis whitei Rebel 1940 but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Phlogophora by Pinker (1971). Phlogophora cabrali is distinguished from other species of genus Phlogophora by the following characters: wing pattern show differences at level of species in the hindwing, male genitalia with costal margin of the ampulla larger, straight and bears 7 setae, female genitalia with ductus bursae narrower at the base and has two loops at the apex, one proceeds into the corpus bursae and the other into the ductus seminalis (Saldaitis and Ivinskis 2006). The species was also recorded as Eumichtis whitei sensu Rbl. 1940 (misidentification).

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently, invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. Nevertheless, the species has also adapted to naturalised vegetation. The larvae feeds preferably on Rubus species that are located in and around allochthonous coniferous forests as well as native woodlands (Wagner 2015b). This species is possibly a specialist herbivore and has several generations per year. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly from the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Faial, Pico, S. Jorge and S. Miguel). Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva and to find extant specimens. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations. A monitoring plan is also necessary for the invertebrate community in the habitat in order to contribute to undertaking a species potential recovery plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 (1971) and is distinguished from other species of genus Phlogophora by the following characters: wing pattern show differences at level of species in the hindwing, male genitalia with differences in the morphology of the valva and the phallus (Pinker 1971). This species is moderately widespread, occurring in the native medium and high altitude vegetation of four islands, occurring in at least 6 locations under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
This species was particularly abundant in Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira and S. Miguel islands, occurring mostly in the native and naturalised vegetation at medium and high elevations of these islands. However, changes in the vegetation in the last 30 years are threatening this species. Therefore, we suspect that the population is decreasing.

Decline (observed)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. Nevertheless, the species has also adapted to naturalised vegetation. The larvae are mostly abundant in humid, shady, windprotected places in northern exposition with only small Calluna vulgaris bushes between ca. 500 and 1000 m a.s.l.and in low numbers also in embankments and edges of streets through allochthonous coniferous forests and other places (Wagner 2015b). In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly from the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, P. furnasi is under threat due to degradation of the habitat by cattle (Wagner 2015b), but also due to invasive plants Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum that are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Terceira). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).

Species information
Brotolomia periculosa ab. interrupta Warren, 1905 Phlogophora interrupta was described as Brotolomia periculosa ab. interrupta by Warren (1905) but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Phlogophora by Pinker 1971. Phlogophora interrupta is distinguished from other species of genus Phlogophora by the following characters: wing pattern show differences at level of species in the hindwing, male genitalia with costal margin of the ampula curved and sickle-shaped, it only gradually widens, and has 4 setae and female genitalia with ductus bursae sclerotised and wide from the base to the centre. The ductus bursae and the ductus seminalis branch from the common stem at the apex. The corpus bursae has sac-shaped with an elongate plate-shaped signum (Saldaitis and Ivinskis 2006). The species was also recorded as Phlogophora wollastoni Bethune-Baker, 1891 (misidentification).

Stable
The species is a widespread and abundant species in native and naturalised vegetation at medium and high elevations of the Azorean islands (with the exception of Corvo island). The adults are rare at lower elevations (Vieira et al. 1998). The species has currently a stable population. Phlogophora interrupta has eight subpopulations, all of them relatively abundant in the canopy of endemic trees. The species currently presents stable subpopulations.

Yes
This species occurs particularly in typical medium to highland biotopes with native grass and moss on Azorean islands (despite some registered records at lower altitudes). Altitudinal range: 100-1,000 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently, invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. Nevertheless, the species has also adapted to naturalised vegetation.
Major Importance The adults of P. interrupta are captured in light traps from April to November, with a maximum of individuals in summer (e.g. Santa Bárbara, Terceira, at the end of july; Vieira et al. 1998). Primarily, the larvae feed on various ferns (e.g. Dryopteris spp., Osmunda regalis) and also on Rubus spp. (Wagner 2015b). The larvae are possibly a specialised herbivore and have three generations per year.

Threats
Ongoing Threats: In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly from the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management

. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level
The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, S. Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations, mostly with a high dominance of mosses. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011  pattern of forewing more prominent than in related species, male genitalia with ampulla curved in the ventral margin, which contain 6 setae and female genitalia with a ductus bursae that it is almost of the same width throughout (Wagner 2015b).

Stable
In the last ten years, the rapid spread of invasive plants, namely Hedychium gardnerianum and Hydrangea macrophylla, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality. Habitat destruction and invasive plants can drive this species to extinction very fast.

Decline (inferred)
This species is still relatively abundant on Flores island, occurring mostly in highland Juniperus brevifolia woodland wet habitats with grass and Sphagnum spp. moss (Saldaitis and Ivinskis 2006). A decline is probably due to the degradation of

Decline (observed)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to reductions in habitat size and quality, mostly from the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently invasive plants, (mostly Hydrangea macrophylla and Hedychium gardnerianum), are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in a regionally protected area (Natural Park of Flores). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations with Juniperus brevifolia and areas of native grasses and mosses on Flores island. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).  Stenoptilia meyeri was described by Gielis (1997) and is distinguished from other species of genus Stenoptilia by the following characters: distinct line in the first lobe of the forewing, the small extension of the margin of the valva in male genitalia and the small process at the distal end of the ostium in the female genitalia (Gielis 1997).

Region for assessment:
-Global  The species occurs only at Tronqueira native forest area at Northeast part of S. Miguel. The complete forest is threatened by invasive plants.

Stable
Only one location left.

Decline (inferred)
The species is possibly rare and only known from a single population. A continuing decline in the number of mature individuals is inferred from the ongoing habitat degradation due to invasions by alien plants (Hedychium gardnerianum, Clethra arborea). Threat type:

Decline (inferred)
The species is possibly rare and only known from a single population. A continuing decline habitat due to degradation and the presence of invasions by alien plants (Hedychium gardnerianum, Clethra arborea) possibly has caused a decline of the only population.

Terrestrial
Yes This is possibly a closed forest species that occurs in the hyper-humid Azorean native forests, surrounded by plantations of exotic trees (Cryptomeria japonica), with an altitudinal range between 700 and 1000 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat.
Major Importance -1.4. Forest -Temperate Ecology 1 Unknown We assume that this species is a specialist herbivore, but with unknown current details on its ecology.

Threats
Ongoing Threats: The most important ongoing threat to this species is the spread of invasive plants (Hedychium gardnerianum and Clethra arborea) that are changing the habitat structure, namely decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil and promoting the spread of other plants. Research performed by Ferreira et al. (2016) indicates that the habitat will decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration), which may drive this species to extinction, because it is dependent on humid forests.

Conservation
In Place The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in a regionally protected area (S. Miguel Natural Park). The São Miguel Natural Park administration is currently starting control measures of the invasive plants. LIFE PRIOLO project started with a restoration of degraded habitats to increase the area of pristine forest. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to learn about the ecological requirements of the species and the feeding substrate of the larva. Further surveys and monitoring is required to clarify its population size, trends and distribtion into other forest areas of S. Miguel island. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests and performing an area-based management plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011 Homoesoma miguelensis and Homoesoma picoensis were described by Meyer et al. (1997) and are distinguished from other species of genus Homoesoma by the following characters: labial palpus extended, male genitalia with gnathos distally thickened and with the presence of a small curved hook in the apical part and phallus with a vesica that has a sclerotised tubular zone in the form of a screw. Females are unknown. The Azorean species are allopatric, the main difference between them being the presence of a larger phallus in H. picoensis (Meyer et al. 1997). Holotype of H. miguelensis is the only known specimen and it was collected from São Miguel.

Stable
In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants namely, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
Homoeosoma miguelensis is possibly scattered and low abundant in S. Miguel island, occurring mostly in native vegetation but also in naturalised plants. The species has one subpopulation in S. Miguel. Currently invasive plants, namely Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat in both islands. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns). Consequently, we assume a decline in number of subpopulations due to major threats.

Yes
Preferably, the species occurs in areas of native forest and fragmented areas of the surroundings. Altitudinal range: 200-600 m.

Decline (observed)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat.

No
The larvae are supposed to feed on the Asteraceae plants. We assume that this species is a specialist herbivore and flies in July at medium altitudes of the Povoação (Meyer et al. 1997). In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures and Cryptomeria japonica plantations (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Park of S. Miguel). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations with Juniperus brevifolia and areas of native grasses and mosses on S. Miiguel island. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011)  Homoesoma picoensis and Homoesoma miguelensis were described by Meyer et al. (1997) and are distinguished from other species of genus Homoesoma by the following characters: labial palpus extended, male genitalia with gnathos distally thickened and with the presence of a small curved hook in the apical part and phallus with a vesica that has a sclerotised tubular zone in the form of a screw. Females are unknown. The Azorean species are allopatric, the main difference between them being the presence of a larger phallus in H. picoensis (Meyer et al. 1997). The species occurs in one site with few remnants of native forest. Native forest destruction and habitat fragmentation can greaty influence a decline in EOO. This species occurs in one single location with semi-natural grassland and few patches with endemic plants in Pico island under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations have been made in the territory, mostly for the creation of pastures, with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Population
Decline ( Homoeosoma picoensis is scattered and scarce in Pico island. As the species is restricted to a single patch in Pico with a dominance of semi-natural pasture and few isolated endemic trees, we assume a decreasing trend in abundance.

No
No Unknown Unknown

Stable
The species has one population in Pico. As the species is restricted to a single patch in Pico with a dominance of semi-natural pasture and few isolated endemic trees, we assume a decreasing trend in abundance.

Yes
This species occurs mostly in areas of native vegetation at medium and high elevations of the Pico island. Altitudinal range: 700-900 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently human activities (cattle production) and invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. The species is known to preferably feed on Asteraceae plants. We assume that this species is a specialist herbivore and flies in July (Meyer et al. 1997). In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, cattle production and invasive plants (Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum) are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on research by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Park of Pico). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilized. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations on Pico island. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). Neomariania incertella was described in the genus Megaceraea by Rebel (1940) based on the wing pattern description, but subsequently was reassigned to the genus Neomariania. Males are unknown. It is necessary to collect more individuals and have more information about morphological characters (e.g. genitalia structures) to clarify the identity of the taxon.

Region for assessment:
-Global  The original historical single native forest patch in Flores island, which has a severe and ongoing threat from invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Hydrangea macrophylla and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
This species is rare in Flores island, occurring mostly in native vegetation but also in naturalised plants in a small patch of native vegetation in the North part of the island. A continuing decline in the number of mature individuals is inferred from the degradation of its habitat due to human activities (pastures for dairy cattle) and invasions of alien plants. Threat type:

Decline (inferred)
The species is only known from a single population inhabiting in Flores, occurring in disturbed native forest. It is assumed, due to ongoing threats, that this species population is in decline. Worst case inferrences show it could possibly even be extinct.

Yes
The species occurs in native forest areas but also in open landscapes with isolated tree groups. Altitudinal range: 10-100 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently human activities (cattle production) and invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. The species has also adapted to naturalised plants. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Hydrangea macrophylla and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Park of Flores). The control of the invasive plant species, Hydrangea macrophylla and Pittosporum undulatum, should be implemented to improve the habitat quality for this species. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. A habitat management plan is needed and anticipated to be developed during the coming years.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at mid and high elevations associated with native forests of Juniperus brevifolia woodland forests in Flores island. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community at low elevations. The genus Neomariania is in need of a detailed taxonomic revision.

Species information
Megaceraea oecophorella Rebel, 1940 Moth (English); Traça (Portuguese) Neomariania oecophorella was described in the genus Megaceraea by Rebel (1940) based on the wing pattern description, but subsequently was re-assigned to the genus Neomariania. It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon based on the description of male and female genitalia and perform a full comparative study with other species of its genus.

Region for assessment:
-Global This species is somewhat restricted through the native low altitude vegetation of five islands, occurring in at least 6 locations under ongoing severe impacts of land-use changes and invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major land-use alterations were made in the territory with impacts in native habitats, particularly at low elevations. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
This species is scarce in the Azorean islands (Flores, Faial, Pico, Terceira and S. Miguel), occurring mostly in native vegetation but also in naturalised plants at low elevations.

Decline (inferred)
Neomariania oecophorella has four subpopulations, occurring mostly in native vegetation but also in naturalised plants at low elevations. We need more information about the taxon to clarify the real status of the subpopulations, but it is possible that they are declining due to human activities promoting major land-use changes and invasions of alien plants. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality. Currently, human activities (cattle production) and invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. The species has also adapted to naturalised plants. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). In some of the historical localities, major changes also occurred for urban development in the last 50 years. Currently invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place The species is not protected by regional law. Conservation measures are needed to control the invasive plants, Hedychium gardnerianum and Pittosporum undulatum. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at low and mid elevations. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community at low elevations. The genus Neomariania is in need of a detailed taxonomic revision. Neomariania scriptella was described in the genus Megaceraea by Rebel (1940) based on the wing pattern description, but subsequently was re-assigned to the genus Neomariania. It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon based on the description of The extent of occurrence (EOO) is ca. 3,400 km and the maximum estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is 48 km .

500
Neomariania scriptella is an endemic species present in Pico, Graciosa and Terceira islands (Azores, Portugal) , known from native forest and in open landscapes with isolated tree groups.

3,400
Decline (inferred) The species occurs in a restricted number of localities in highly modified sites on three islands. Native forest destruction and habitat fragmentation can influence a decline in EOO. This species is somewhat restricted to low elevations, occurring in at least 3 locations under ongoing severe impacts of land-use changes and invasive plants.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations have been made in the territory with impacts to native habitats. In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Decline (inferred)
Neomariania scriptella has small population abundances in three Central Azorean islands (Pico, Graciosa and Terceira), occurring mostly in highly modified native vegetation but also in naturalised plants.

Decline (observed)
Neomariania scriptella has three subpopulations, occurring mostly in native vegetation but also in naturalised plants at low elevations. We need more information about the taxon to clarify the real status of the subpopulations, but it is possible that they are declining due to human agriculture and urban activities at low elevations, as well as the spread of invasive plants. The species was originally associated with native forest areas but also in open landscapes with isolated tree groups. The vegetation in those sites is currently highly modified. Altitudinal range: 10-500 m.

Decline (observed)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently human activities (cattle production; urban development) and invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. The species has also adapted to naturalised plants. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly from the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, several threats are operating at low elevations: urban development; agriculture (maize rotation with pastures; invasive plants Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum that are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on research by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place - The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Park of Graciosa). Conservation measures are needed to control the invasive plants Hedychium gardnerianum and Pittosporum undulatum. Restoration of low elevation native habitats are also needed. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at low and mid elevations. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community at low elevations. The genus Neomariania is in need of a detailed taxonomic revision. Henderickx, 1995  Eudarcia atlantica was described by Henderickx (1995) and is distinguished from other species of genus Eudarcia by the following characters: forewing small, unsuitable for flying, female genitalia with two sclerotised bands in the VIIIth segment and the proximal ends are slightly connected to the anterior apophyses (Henderickx 1995). Henderickx had only females and predicted that the species could be parthenogenetic. However, from larvae collected in April from S. Miguel, both males and females emerged (O. Karsholt, unpubl.).

Decline (inferred)
The species occurs in rocky areas with algae and lichens as well as in man-made stone structures (e.g. stone walls).

No
The larvae live in a portable case that is covered with sand and soil particles and feed on green algae which grow along with lichens on black lava rocks; larval cases are often found on walls and rocks in the coastal area (Henderickx 1995). Since only females were found, the possibility of parthenogenesis was considered by Henderickx (1995). According to this author, larvae and pupae were collected in July, imagos were obtained in August-September. From larvae collected in April in S. Miguel, adults emerged in May and June (O. Karsholt, unpubl.). In the past, the species has probably declined due to changes in habitat size and quality, mostly the by creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). Currently, invasive plants, Carpobrotus edulis and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of algae and lichens) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting & alteration). The species is not protected by regional law. Conservation measures are needed to control the invasive plants Hedychium gardnerianum and Carpobrotus edulis. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional rocky coastal areas with pristine habitat. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community of rocky coastal areas. Argyresthia atlanticella was described by Rebel (1940) from the wing pattern description. It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon from the description of male and female genitalia and DNA barcode to compare with other species of its genus.

Stable
The species is a widespread and highly abundant species in native plants (e.g. Ericaceae, Cupressaceae and Polygonaceae) of several habitats in all Azorean islands. It is probably the most common Lepidoptera species in the Azores. This species has probably a stable population. In the past, the species has probably declined due to a reduction in habitat size and quality, mostly by the creation of pastures (Triantis et al. 2010). The main host plant Erica azorica is an early successional plant that tends to invade seminatural pastures creating conflicts with farming. Currently, invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. Based on Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, Pico, S. Jorge, Terceira, S. Miguel and Santa Maria). Degraded habitats outside protected areas should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). A taxonomic revision of Azorean Argyresthia, which should also include a comparison of the DNA barcodes, is needed to show how many species are present in the Azores islands. Justification for trend:

Argyresthia minusculella
Argyresthia minusculella was described by Rebel (1940) from the wing pattern description. It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon from the description of male and female genitalia and DNA barcode to compare with other species of its genus. It is not clear if A. minusculella is a distinct species or a synonym of A. atlanticella. This species is recorded from just one site in each of the three islands where it occurs (Flores, Pico and Terceira) and all are under ongoing severe impacts of invasive plants.

Stable
In the last ten years, the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulartum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality. The species occurs in native forest from three islands, but in two of the islands, the historical localities were higly modified in the last decades. The species is particularly rare in terms of abundance in all these islands.

Decline (inferred)
Argyresthia minusculella has three subpopulations, all of them are in continuing decline due to human activity and introduction of invasive plants.

Yes
The species occurs in three isolated patches, one in each island (Flores, Pico and Terceira). At least 50% of its population can be found in subpopulations/in habitat patches that are smaller than would be required to support a viable population and separated from other habitat patches by a large distance. In fact, the species occurs in three natural forest fragments that are isolated in a sea of pastures and Cryptomeria japonica plantations. At least two of the locations will be under severe threat in the next 10 years due to the aggressive spread of the invasive plant Hedychium gardnerianum.

Yes
This species occurs mainly in the Azorean native forest. Altitudinal range: 50-800 m.

Decline (inferred)
In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently, invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat.  Two of the historical localites were recently highly modified by degradation of the habitat by urban development and agriculture. Currently, the invasive plants, Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing some of the areas and decreasing the quality of the habitat. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on research performed by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration). The species is not protected by regional law. Its habitat is in regionally protected areas (Natural Parks of Flores and Pico). Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change and ongoing impact of invasive species. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at mid and high elevations. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). A taxonomic revision of Azorean Argyresthia, which should also include a Argyresthia poecilella was described in the genus Tinea by Rebel (1940) from the wing pattern description. It is necessary to re-analyse the taxon from the description of male and female genitalia to compare with other species of its genus. Only one individual has been collected from São Miguel. A study of the holotype shows that it belongs to the genus Argyresthia (O. Karsholt, unpubl.).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Decline (inferred)
The species possibly occurs in its historical locality of Furnas, São Miguel island, in the Azores. If extant, the species AOO is declining due to high human impact in the historical locality.

No
Yes Unknown Unknown

1
The original historical locality.

Stable
In the last 100 years, major alterations have been made in the territory with impacts in native habitats. In the last ten years, urban development and the spread of invasive plants, namely Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum, are changing the structure of the forest and the cover of bryophytes and ferns in the soil which will impact the species habitat quality.

Unknown
Only known from one specimen. The species was not registered by local taxonomists in recent years.

No
Yes Unknown Unknown

Unknown
The species has one subpopulation in S. Miguel island. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size and quality. Currently urban development and invasive plant species are decreasing the quality of the habitat. In the past, the species has probably strongly declined due to changes in habitat size (Triantis et al. 2010). In the last 50 years, additional major land-use changes occurred in the historical locality and the spread of invasive species is a major threat namely Hedychium gardnerianum. Residential development can also be a problem for this species. These changes are decreasing the relative cover of endemic plants and changing the soil cover (decreasing the cover of bryophytes and ferns) with the expansion of other plants and potential threats to the species. Based on research by Ferreira et al. (2016), the habitat will further decline as a consequence of climate change (increasing number of droughts and habitat shifting and alteration).

Conservation
Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control -2.3. Land/water management -Habitat & natural process restoration -4. Education & awareness -5.4.3. Law & policy -Compliance and enforcement -Sub-national level The species is not protected by regional law. Further research is needed into its ecology and life history in order to find extant specimens. Degraded habitats should be restored and a strategy needs to be developed to address the future threat by climate change. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests.

International
The species is not utilised. In order to learn about the species' population size, distribution and ecological requirements, for example the feeding substrate of the larvae, further research is needed into its ecology and life history. It will be also important to find extant specimens in additional natural forest areas at high elevations in Nodeste at S.
Miguel. An important first step in creating a potential specific species recovery plan is monitoring the entire invertebrate community in native forests and perform an area-based management plan. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011). A taxonomic revision of Azorean Argyresthia, which should also include a comparison of the DNA barcodes, is needed to show how many species are present in the Azores islands.

Discussion
In this study we have analysed 34 species of moth described as endemic to the Azores, grouping the historical data and giving new information about their distribution, habitat, threats and proposals for their conservation. Twenty out of the 34 studied species are known from at least four islands and many of them are widely distributed within each island. These common species include all eight Crambidae, which are important pollinators of the Azorean native forest (Picanço et al. 2017).
We evaluated that 15 endemic species have an extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) that is stable with a range of between 6,200-62,00 km for EOO and 44-584 km for AOO. Five species have a stable EOO but a decline in AOO decline, of which we must emphasise Micrurapteryx bistrigella (Rebel, 1940) and Neomariania oecophorella (Rebel, 1940) for presenting a low value of AOO. Five more species have an AOO and EOO decline, which present a low range between 1,950-8,900 km for EOO and 16-48 km for AOO. In addition to this, nine of these species have a very restricted distribution, occupying a unique island (three of them from Flores, another three from São Miguel, one from Faial, one from Pico and one from S. Jorge) and, therefore, they have a very small EOO and AOO. Amongst the analysed taxa, it should be noted that, for five species, only one individual is known (historical data), leaving one of the two sexes totally unknown. These species have low areas of occupation and are frequently restricted to a single patch of native forest. The lack of new records may indicate that one of the species previously named is extinct (Eupithecia ogilviata). In addition, many other species are in a 2 2 2 2 critical conservation situation and actions should be taken with some urgency, namely the implementation of area-based management plans for those species distribution historical sites.  Wagner, 2015) challenges the notion that Lepidoptera are one of the most well studied taxonomic groups of insects in the Azores (cf. , Borges et al. 2016b. Consequently, additional surveys are needed as well as taxonomic work on the earlier described species by Warren (1905) and Rebel (1940). There is also some urgency to perform standardised sampling of moths in the most important habitats of the Azores to investigate whether the negative impact of land-use changes observed for beetles and other Azorean arthropods (Cardoso et al. 2009) may also apply to this group.
Climate change is one of the prevailing threats across the world affecting numerous species and studies on some Azorean taxa show its negative effects, such as on Macaronesian bryophytes (Patiño et al. 2016) and Azorean spiders (Ferreira et al. 2016). Therefore and although the precise climate change impacts on Azorean moths are yet to be investigated, in a first approximation, we must assume a similar negative impact upon Lepidoptera. Further, most endemic moth species are now mostly restricted to the Azorean network of protected areas (RAA 2002) and their populations are decreasing due to pasture intensification, forestry (Cryptomeria japonica pulp plantations management) and invasive species (e.g. Pittosporum undulatum, Hedychium gardnerianum). Consequently, formal education and awareness is needed to allow future investments in habitat restoration of areas invaded by invasive plants or impacted by forestry and dairy-cow management, located mostly at mid elevations. The use of greatly magnified images (extreme macro photography) of Lepidoptera may be a successful strategy to inform the public about the ecological an aesthetical value of Azorean endemic moths (e.g. see Vieira 2006 (Fig. 13).
Concerning the most threathened Azorean moth species, a community monitoring plan is also crucial to generate data for the development of species recovery plans. Monitoring every ten years using the BALA protocol will inform about habitat quality (e.g. see Gaspar et al. 2011).