Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders I: Agelenidae to Filistatidae

Abstract Background The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the most widely used information source on the extinction risk of species. One of the uses of the Red List is to evaluate and monitor the state of biodiversity and a possible approach for this purpose is the Red List Index (RLI). For many taxa, mainly hyperdiverse groups, it is not possible within available resources to assess all known species. In such cases, a random sample of species might be selected for assessment and the results derived from it extrapolated for the entire group - the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI). With the current contribution and the three following papers, we intend to create the first point in time of a future spider SRLI encompassing 200 species distributed across the world. New information A sample of 200 species of spiders were randomly selected from the World Spider Catalogue, an updated global database containing all recognised species names for the group. The 200 selected species where divided taxonomically at the family level and the familes were ordered alphabetically. In this publication, we present the conservation profiles of 46 species belonging to the famillies alphabetically arranged between Agelenidae and Filistatidae, which encompassed Agelenidae, Amaurobiidae, Anyphaenidae, Araneidae, Archaeidae, Barychelidae, Clubionidae, Corinnidae, Ctenidae, Ctenizidae, Cyatholipidae, Dictynidae, Dysderidae, Eresidae and Filistatidae.


Introduction
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the most widely used information source on the extinction risk of species (Lamoreux et al. 2003, Rodrigues et al. 2006 but see Cardoso et al. 2011, Cardoso et al. 2012. It is based on a number of objective criteria, which are relatively easy to apply when adequate information is available (IUCN 2001). The Red List has been used to raise awareness about threatened species, guide conservation efforts and funding, set priorities for protection, measure site irreplaceability and vulnerability and influence environmental policies and legislation (Gardenfors et al. 2001, Rodrigues et al. 2006, Martín-López et al. 2009).
One of the uses of the Red List is to evaluate and monitor the state of biodiversity and a possible approach for this purpose is the Red List Index (RLI). The RLI helps to develop a better understanding of which taxa, regions or ecosystems are declining or improving their conservation status. It provides policy makers, stakeholders, conservation practitioners and the general public with sound knowledge of biodiversity status and change and tools with which to make informed decisions. The RLI uses weight scores based on the Red List status of each of the assessed species. These scores range from 0 (Least Concern) to 5 (Extinct/Extinct in the Wild). Summing these scores across all species, relating them to the worst-case scenario -all species extinct and comparing two or more points in time gives us an indication of how biodiversity is doing. At a global level, the RLI has been calculated for birds (Butchart et al. 2004, Hoffman et al. 2010, mammals (Hoffman et al. 2011), amphibians (Hoffman et al. 2010), corals (Butchart 2010) and cycads (United Nations 2015).
For many taxa, mainly hyperdiverse groups, it is not possible within available resources to assess all known species. In such cases, a random sample of species might be selected for assessment and the results derived from it extrapolated for the entire group -the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI, Baillie et al. 2008). The SRLI is now being developed for plants (Brummitt et al. 2015) and efforts towards a SRLI for butterflies (Lewis and Senior 2011) and Odonata are also in progress (Clausnitzer 2009).
Spiders currently comprise over 47000 species described at a global level (World Spider Catalog 2018). Of these, only 199 species (0.4%) have been assessed (www.redlist.org), of which the vast majority are from the Seychelles Islands or belong to the golden-orb weavers, Nephilidae (e.g. Kuntner et al. 2017). To these, a large number will be added in the near future, such as 55 species endemic to the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos and 25 endemic to the Azores, all in Portugal (Cardoso et al. 2017, Borges et al. submitted). The vast majority of spiders assessed to date are therefore either regionally or taxonomically clustered and do not represent the group as a whole. With the current contribution and the three following papers, we intend to create the first point in time of a future spider SRLI encompassing 200 species distributed across the world.

Methods
A sample of 200 species of spiders were randomly selected from the World Spider Catalog (2018), an updated global database containing all recognised species names for the group. The 200 selected species were divided taxonomically at the family level and those familes were ordered alphabetically. In this publication, we present the conservation profiles of 46 species belonging to the families alphabetically arranged between Agelenidae and Filistatidae, which encompassed Agelenidae, Amaurobiidae, Anyphaenidae, Araneidae, Archaeidae, Barychelidae, Clubionidae, Corinnidae, Ctenidae, Ctenizidae, Cyatholipidae, Dictynidae, Dysderidae, Eresidae and Filistatidae.
For all analyses, we used the R package red -IUCN redlisting tools . This package performs a number of spatial analyses based on either observed occurrences or estimated ranges. Functions include calculating Extent of Occurrence (EOO), Area of Occupancy (AOO), mapping species ranges, species distribution modelling using climate and land cover information, calculating the Red List Index for groups of species, amongst others. In this work, the EOO and AOO were calculated in one of two ways: -for range restricted species, for which we assumed knowledge of the full range, these values were classified as observed, the minimum convex polygon encompassing all observations used to calculate the EOO and the 2 km x 2 km cells known to be occupied and used to calculate the AOO. When the EOO was smaller than the AOO, it was made equal as per the IUCN guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2017).
-for widespread species or those for which we did not have confidence to know the full range, we performed species distribution modelling (SDM). This was done based on both climatic (Fick and Hijmans 2017) and landcover (Tuanmu and Jetz 2014) datasets, at an approximately 1x1 km resolution. Before modelling, the world layers were cropped to the region of interest to each species and reduced to four layers through a PCA to avoid overfitting. In addition, latitude and longitude were used as two extra layers to avoid the models predicting presences much beyond the known region following the precautionary principle. We then used the Maxent method (Phillips et al. 2006) implemented in the R package red. Isolated patches outside the original distribution polygon were excluded from maps to avoid overestimation of EOO and AOO values. All final maps and values were checked and validated by our own expert opinion. KMLs derived from these maps were also produced using the red package. The cells (2x2 km) predicted to be occupied were used to calculate the AOO. When the EOO was smaller than the AOO, it was made equal as per the IUCN guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2017).
To infer on possible changes in range and/or abundance and for forest species only, we have also consulted the Global Forest Watch portal (Global Forest Watch 2014), looking for changes in forest cover during the last 10 years that could have affected the species. The species was recorded from Redwood Canyon. The habitat in California is mostly desert and xeric shrublands (Olson et al. 2001). Otherwise, the preferred habitat of this species is unknown.

Unknown
Major Importance -18. Unknown -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control The species type locality and the surrounding area (a 10 km radius around it) seem to be included, at least in part, in Los Padres National Forest in California, USA. This is a protected area by US law. However, the range for this species is unknown and therefore it is not possible to assess if this species also exists outside of this National Forest. There is an area-based regional management plan: Los Padres National Forest Management Plan (USDA Forest Service 2005) and an invasive species control and prevention plan is in place (USDA Forest Service 2005). This species' type locality is within the Mendocino National Forest, which is managed by the USDA Forest Service. The Mendocino National Forest Ecological Restoration Plan (USDA Forest Service 2013) projected that 15,500 cubic feet of timber from the forest will be harvested. This logging may impact the probability of extinction of the species.

Conservation
In Place -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management -2.2. Land/water management -Invasive/problematic species control This species is known only from its type locality (Leech 1972), a temperate forest within the Mendocino National Forest. The preferred habitat, population size, range and other ecological data are unknown. However, the Mendocino National Forest has certain areas logged for timber sale (USDA Forest Service 2013) and this may affect the species' extinction risk. An area-based regional management plan (USDA Forest Service 1995) and an invasive species control plan are in place (USDA Forest Service 2006). Ecology and traits of this species are largely unknown. Spiders of the family Anyphaenidae are usually active nocturnal hunters. They live in foliage and leaf litter and build a tube-like retreat with silk (Jocqué and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006). Retreats of anyphaenids are usually in crevices or under rocks (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). In the region, a few species are known to live in the intertidal zone (Ramírez 2003) or grasslands (Labarque et al. 2015), while the majority of species are known to be arboreal .

Ongoing -2.3.4. Agriculture & aquaculture -Livestock farming & ranching -Scale Unknown/ Unrecorded
Haiti has a high population density and a forest cover estimated at 32% of the original cover. Natural resources have undergone severe depletion and degradation and the land cover has changed remarkably during the last decade. Forest cover has been decreasing resulting from the increase in cultivated areas (Dolisca et al. 2007). Since this species probably lives in the foliage and amongst leaf litter in the forests, deforestation can be considered as a plausible threat to its survival.

Conservation
In Place This species single known locality is close to the Parc National La Citadelle, Sans Souci, Ramiers, where it might also occur (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). Since Haiti is experiencing severe deforestation, more attention should be paid to conservation actions intending to protect and manage the remaining forest habitats. In addition, educating people would also contribute to conservation actions. Haiti seems to lack alternatives for farming, therefore livelihood alternatives should be taken into consideration (Dolisca et al. 2007). Basic research is needed to know the current distribution of this species and whether the habitat decline causes population decline. Further research is also needed to know current population trends, ecology and traits of the species along with threats.

International
1 Unknown Ecology and traits of this species are largely unknown. Spiders of the family Anyphaenidae are usually active nocturnal hunters. They live in foliage and leaf litter and build a tube-like retreat with silk (Jocqué and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006). Retreats of anyphaenids are usually in crevices or under rocks (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). In the region, a few species are known to live in the intertidal zone (Ramírez 2003) or to commonly inhabit grasslands (Labarque et al. 2015), while the majority of species are known to be arboreal

Unknown
The type locality, Barro Colorado, is a lowland tropical moist forest (Olson et al. 2001 Platnick, 1974 from America north of Mexico has been collected in pitfalls, Malaise traps and sweeping, indicating that this group might occur in a broad range of vegetation strata (Platnick 1974  suggests that its range may expand to other coffee production regions. However, another study of spider diversity in Mexican coffee plantations only detected Wulfila sp. (potentially W. inornatus) as a co-dominant species (with Leucage argyra) in the rainy season and in only one of the three studied plantations (Pinkus Rendón et al. 2006).  -Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Species Distribution Model
Given the relatively high number of records (Levi 1988), it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

2054
The species is reasonably well collected for a Neotropical orbweaver and its range is quite large (compared to the range of other Alpaida species, Levi 1988).

1137583
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species. Trend in extent, area or quality?: Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

Unknown
No known threats.

Stable
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
No population size estimates exist.

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown This species occurs in tropical rainforest in a wide area of southern Brazil and Uruguay, including but not limited to the Atlantic coastal forest (Levi 1988

Justification for conservation actions:
There is no continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat (estimated). The Global Forest Watch (Global Forest Watch 2014) estimates loss and gain of forest roughly equal within the species EOO.
Major Importance -1.6. Forest -Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland Ecology 8.2-17.5 mm 1 No Araneids, in general, are orb-weavers building a sticky web, waiting for their prey in the web and attacking by spin-wrapping (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Amongst Alpaida, the webs and habits are more diverse than in other araneids since they are often vertical with a variation of different designs between species (Levi 1988 Given the relatively high number of records (Keyserling 1865, Levi 1988, Liljesthröm et al. 2002, Saavedra et al. 2007, Pinzon et al. 2010, GBIF Secretariat 2017, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

29200662
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

Conservation actions:
This species has been reported from soybean fields (Liljesthröm et al. 2002), rice fields (Saavedra et al. 2007), coffeee and orange plantations, sugarcanes, as well as less disturbed habitats such as tropical dry rain forests, swampy pond floating vegetation and swamp plants, including Eichhornia crassipes (Levi 1988 The orb-web of Alpaida veniliae can reach 40 cm in diameter and, at night, the spider rests at its hub, the females tangling the egg-sac to vegetation. This species feeds mainly on Cercopidae, Cicadellidae, Pyralidae, Diptera and immature Orthoptera and it has been observed to be a prey of wasps (Levi 1988). This species has been recorded from two sites, Deota in India prior to 1889 (Simon 1889) and Lahore in Pakistan prior to 1935(Dyal 1935. The known locality of this species overlaps with high altitude mountainous areas, which are known to contain many glacier fed streams, with green forests of pine, fir and alpine meadows in Sind Valley (Qamar et al. 2011, Olson et al. 2001. Otherwise, the specific habitat is unknown.

Unknown
Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders I: Agelenidae ... We should note that this species has not been recorded for the last 130 years. Basic research is needed to know current distribution and population trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats.  This species was last recorded in 2000 (GBIF Secretariat 2016d), originally found in Mangshan Yizhang County, Hunan ). It has also been reported from Guanxi, Fujian, Guizhou, Sichuan, Shandong, Henan and Taiwan. The model predicts adequate habitats also in India, Myanmar and Viet Nam. Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

1202064
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

Unknown
No known threats to the species.

Stable
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
No population size estimates exist. This species has been found in mountain plantations of tea, between the crops and trees (Chen and Gao 1990). It has been recorded from the mountainous Sichuan to Fujian located on the coast, which indicates it lives in various habitat types within the ecoregion of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001 Araneids, in general, are orb-weavers building a sticky web, waiting for their prey in the web and attacking by spin-wrapping. Spiders of the genus Cyclosa usually build the web in shrubs and often in open woodlands (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). These are small orbicular webs rebuilt every day. These spiders are known to use prey carcasses as decorations in their webs, following vertical lines, which help disguise the spider from possible predators (Chen and Gao 1990, Chou et al. 2005, Dippenaar-Schoeman andJocqué 1997).

Past
Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders I: Agelenidae ... There is only one record known for Colombia in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. However, the species is probably distributed across the northern Colombia mountains (Levi 1999). This species was found in moist debris and mosses, low growth vegetation, roadside vegetation, pastures with shrubs and conifer forests (Cupressus sp.) (Levi 1999).

Unknown
Major Importance -1.9. Forest -Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane -3.5. Shrubland -Subtropical/Tropical Dry Ecology 2.9-6.8 mm 1 No Araneids, in general, are orb-weavers building a sticky web, waiting for their prey in the web and attacking by spin-wrapping. Spiders of the genus Cyclosa usually build the web in shrubs and often in open woodlands (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). These are small orbicular webs rebuilt every day. These spiders are known to use prey carcasses as decorations in their webs, following vertical lines, which help disguise the spider from possible predators (Chen and Gao 1990, Chou et al. 2005, Dippenaar-Schoeman andJocqué 1997). The species occurs in a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017) but efforts for its protection are not known (pers. obs.). Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is an area where gold and other mining occurs, which could potentially affect the species. Besides resource extraction activities, agriculture and illicit crops may also affect the area (Global Forest Watch 2014).

Conservation
In Place This species has been recorded within the ecoregion of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001). Otherwise, the specific habitat is unknown.

Unknown
Major Importance -18. Unknown Ecology 10.5 mm 1 Unknown Araneids in general are orb-weavers building a sticky web, waiting for their prey in the web and attacking by spin-wrapping (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne have been observed to feed mostly on moths. Their web structure is different from other Araneidae species, since it is a very sticky, horizontal orb-web and the spiral thread has a low shear joint and it is widely spaced (Miyashita et al. 2001). These spiders can capture a moth with a single thread (Robinson andRobinson 1975, Cartan andMiyashita 2000). Species from the same genus are reported from fields and grasslands where their main prey (moths) occur (Miyashita et al. 2001).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

19812326
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

6217360
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

Unknown
No known threats to the species.

Stable
Widespread species with no known threats. Monitoring is needed to know current population and habitat trends. Also, the material from the only reported subspecies of this taxon, Gea spinipes nigrifons, has been lost and is dubiously georeferrenced (Levi 1983). This might prove to be a distinct and highly localised species, therefore taxonomic research is needed.

Basis of EOO and AOO:
Region for assessment: -Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

27888251
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

11648048
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

Unknown
No known threats to the species. vegetation to the side of its web in the daytime and, in the night, it sits in the hub of the web (Harrod et al. 1990).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat No known threats.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection This is a widespread species and there are many protected areas within its range (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). Observed Despite a relatively high number of records (Schenkel 1953, Levi 2005, Levi 2007), the species distribution models were not found to be reasonable by our own expert opinion. Hence, only observed records are presented.

6269611
Stable Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable, being a widespread species.

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown This species inhabits the neblina area of the Amazon, the Amazon Basin flooding areas (Rego et al. 2009) and the Atlantic Forest (Dias et al. 2006, Peres et al. 2007). It has been reported from lowland tall evergreen forest with macrothermic climate at 100 m a.s.l., to highland montane forest with submesothermic climate at 860 m (Nogueira 2011). It is known to occur also in open ombrophile forest (Ricetti and Bonaldo 2008), Amazonian rain forest Brescovit 2001, Bonaldo et al. 2009), in remnants of Atlantic forest mostly covered with a non-native Eucalyptus plantation (Gonçalves-Souza 2005) and in undisturbed flooded and terra firme forest (Pinzon et al. 2010 Metazygia species are nocturnal orb-weavers building a vertical orb web (Levi 1995a). They have a cylindrical silk retreat in which the spiders rest during the day (Levi 1995a). The retreat is often situated above the web in a branch, wall or curled leaf and some species remove their webs during the day, but most of them build it up again at night or early in the evening (Levi 1995a Only females were ever recorded and according to Levi (1995a) "It is possible to have doubts and misplace Metazygia species if only a female is available". This species might therefore belong to a different genus.

Region for assessment:
-Global Despite few records (Levi 1995a, GBIF Secretariat 2016c), the species distribution models were not found to be reasonable by our own expert opinion. Hence, only observed records are presented.

1349
This species has been reported from Colombia, Panama and Peru (Levi 1995a, GBIF Secretariat 2016c. Metazygia species are nocturnal orb-weavers building a vertical orb web. The web of M. octama appears to be fragile and spiders tend to tear down the web and feed on prey early at night. The spider rests in its retreat during the day and waits for prey in the centre of the web at night (Levi 1995a).

Range description:
Basic research and monitoring is needed to know the current distribution, population trends, habitat fidelity of the species and possible threats across its range.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Species Distribution Model
Given the relatively high number of records by , Ramirez and Haakonsen (1999), Piel (2001) and Ramirez et al. (2007), it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details). 0 1688 This species range goes from Northern California and North-eastern Nevada in the USA to Baja California in Mexico (Levi 1977, Piel 2001. The sole southern Mexican record, from Agua Bendita, Guerrero (Ordóñez and Ramos 2017) was not included in our analysis as it is outside the known range and habitat. The northernmost record of this species, from Quin River Crossing, Nevada (Levi 1977), fell outside the species distribution modelling and was therefore not included in this species range, although the model predicted the species likely occurs around Pyramid lake, inside Nevada state borders.

Unknown
Although this species bibliographical records show a reduction in its range since 1977 (Levi 1977) to the present day (Piel 2001, Haakonsen 1999, Ramirez et al. 2007), we cannot exclude the hypothesis that this reduction is mostly due to sampling bias.

Unknown
Although this species bibliographical records show a reduction in its range since 1977 (Levi 1977) to the present day (Piel 2001, Haakonsen 1999, Ramirez et al. 2007), we cannot exclude the hypothesis that this reduction is mostly due to sampling bias. This species has been found on mustard, manzanita, California buckwheat and California sage within chaparral biomes (Levi 1977). The species has also been recorded from Opuntia cacti (Ramirez and Haakonsen 1999), Rhus sp., grasses (Ramirez and Fandino 1996) and along coastal hillsides (Ramirez et al. 2007).

Decline (estimated)
Mediterranean-type shrubland (chaparral) is more likely to burn as more humans continue to encroach on this habitat (Syphard et al. 2009). The species spins an orb-web in low vegetation, with an adjacent barrier web slightly to the side and above, wherein a cone-shaped retreat is placed. Egg sacs are placed within the retreat, which becomes progressively longer as egg sacs are added one by one over time, with the most recent on the bottom (Comstock 1948;Piel 2001;Ramirez et al. 2007). The preferred web site is typically unobstructed, rigid vegetation, such as dead or leafless branches, cacti, signposts or fences (e.g. Uetz and Burgess 1979). Members of Metepeira have an annual life cycle; spiderlings emerge in spring and adults may be collected from summer to early fall (autumn) (Levi 1977). Some species of the same genus were also reported to form colonial aggregations with 10 to 200 individuals (Piel 2001). The habitat in which this species has been found is mostly scrub land and chaparral, specifically on low-lying vegetation (Syphard et al. 2009). These habitats in South-western US and Mexico are being encroached upon by human settlements, which increases fire risk and frequency (Syphard et al. 2009). Many plant species -upon which this species builds its webs and lives inside (wrapped leaves -Levi 1977) are fire-sensitive and could be negatively-affected by an increase in fire frequency and extent (Syphard et al. 2009). There have been hundreds of large fires within this habitat in the last five years (Global Forest Watch 2014). This area is also heavily disturbed by mining and oil drilling, especially in northern Mexico (Global Forest Watch 2014).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Basis of EOO and AOO:
Basis ( Ecology and traits of this species are largely unknown. Species of the genus Neoscona are one of the most common and abundant orb-weavers and occur in large numbers in the field. The silk-covered egg can be flattened or lensshaped and the web is vertical with open hub and few threads towards the retreat (Berman and Levi 1971).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat No known threats.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection Barro Colorado Island is protected as a natural monument (Leigh 1999 ,UNEP-WCMC andIUCN 2017). The species was originally mentioned from N. Granada as a short handle for New Kingdom of Granada, a territory covering modern northern and central Colombia, almost all of Ecuador, Costa Rica, Panama, northern Venezuela and northwestern Guyana (Keyserling 1865). However this record was early on, described as Colombian (Petrunkevitch 1911), by an author who might have had access to more detailed information about the specimens origin. This country of origin was followed by later works on the species (Levi 1993) and we can therefore assume that the single specimen might have originated from northern or central Colombia.

Extent of occurrence
Unknown Unknown Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders I: Agelenidae ... This species was recorded from an unspecified locality. Therefore, the specific habitat is unknown. In general, Colombia belongs to the ecoregion of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, but grasslands, savannahs and shrublands can also be found in the northern parts of the country (Olson et al. 2001 Araneids, in general, are orb-weavers building a sticky web. They wait for their prey in the web and attack by spin-wrapping (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Ocrepeida species have been reported to make a complete, nearly vertical orb web (Levi 1993).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Species Distribution Model
Based on bibliographical records (Levi 1995b) and species distribution modelling . The habitat within the range of this species in southern Brazil is mostly farmlands around floodplains within the ecoregion of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf rainforests, grasslands, savannahs and shrublands (Olson et al. 2001). Members of the same genus described by Levi (1995b) in the same paper were found from low vegetation and grasslands. This species was tentatively placed in Tatepeira and therefore it would be relevant to validate the current genus placement. Also basic research is needed to know current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats. It should be mentioned that the species has not been seen since 1977 in a relatively well studied region and that a single locality in Montenegro drives the large extent in EOO and AOO.

Number of locations:
Trend:

Species Distribution Model
Only three records exist (Levi 1991, Buckup andPinto-da-Rocha 1996). The species distribution models were not found to be reasonable by our own expert opinion. Hence, only observed records are presented.

2004
This species is present in Brazil and Bolivia, last recorded in 1992 (Levi 1991, Buckup andPinto-da-Rocha 1996). Species of the Wagneriana genus produce a complete orbicular web without a retreat and wait hanging upside down at its centre (Levi 1991

. Research -Threats
Basic research is needed to know current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats. . Unlike most spiders that are generalists, archaeids are araneophagous -highly specialised hunters preying on other spiders. They have a unique morphology with their eight eyes elevated on a neck-like cephalic region often with cranial spines. They sweep their long front legs out and spear prey by swinging both long lance-like chelicerae out, stabbing the prey, then removing one chelicerae and raising the prey at nearly a ninety degree angle (Kariko pers. obs., Dippenaar-Schoeman andJocqué 1997, Wood et al. 2012). Females lay only a few eggs and they are attached to the third leg. Spiderlings have been observed clinging to the mother's leg after hatching (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997) as well as in a nursery web (Kariko pers. obs.).

Threats
Ongoing -7.1.1. Natural system modifications -Fire & fire suppression -Increase in fire frequency/intensity With the knowledge we have now, an environmental disaster such as a fire, could threaten this population since the species has been found in elevated leaf litter in the rainforest and adjacent snow gum woodland (Rix and Harvey 2011). Fires and landslips were reported in the New England National Park (Office of Environment and Heritage 2017). This species has been recorded in the protected area of New England National Park of north-eastern New South Wales, Australia (Rix and Harvey 2011). Since fires form a major threat to the survival of this species, it would be appropriate to work on fire and habitat management and restoration to guarantee the possible recovery of habitat. Also education and awareness would be appropriate since this species has only been found to occur in a potentially restricted area (Rix and Harvey 2011

. Conservation Planning -Area-based Management Plan
Basic research is needed to know current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with threats. Conservation planning on area-based management plan, for instance, would be essential in case of a severe fire. Zephyrarchaea marae is known only from temperate rainforest and mesic closed forests, particularly in Nothofagus cunninghamii rainforests, wet Mountain Ash forests, complex eucalypt forests and tree fern forest, some with thick understorey. Specimens were also found under tree fern amongst leaf litter (Rix and Harvey 2012).

Stable
This species occurs in several national parks and state forests (Rix and Harvey 2012).
Major Importance -1.4. Forest -Temperate -1.9. Forest -Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane Ecology 3-3.95 mm 1 Unknown Spiders of the family Archaeidae are slow-moving, freeliving, cryptozoic hunters living commonly on shrubs or forest floor (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997;Jocqué and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006) and the places where the specimens were found suggest that this species lives basically on the ground amongst leaf litter (Rix and Harvey 2011). Some archaeids in the Afrotropical region have been observed to be araneophagous. Females of Archaea lay only a few eggs and they are attached to the third leg where the spiderlings also cling on to after hatching. Remarkably long fangs can be used to impale their prey (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Barychelids are brushfooted trapdoor spiders, which live in burrows that can be quite complex, sealed with doors or in temporary silk cells (Dippenaar-Schoeman andJocqué 1997, Raven 1994). The burrows are often not very deep. Some species of the genus Mandjelia have been reported to occur within vine thickets and the burrows between different Mandjela species vary; they can be tube-shaped, barrel-shaped or even Y-shaped with doors at every entrance. Barychelids have been observed to lay 20-80 eggs which are stored in a pillow-shaped sac. These spiders only disperse when juveniles leave the burrow (Raven 1994). Known only from the type locality Col Boa, New Caledonia, recorded in 1965 (Kritscher 1966).

Unknown
Niaouli trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia), also known as punk tree or paperbark tea trees are native to Australia, Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia, but their distribution is increasing outside their native range (Watt et al. 2009). However, it is not known if this species is limited to Niaouli trees or bark microhabitat and, therefore, it is not possible to measure if the recent expansion of Melaleuca quinquenervia has had any impact on increasing Clubiona bifissurata habitat.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

4088
This species is distributed from Europe to central Asia and its records are particularly widespread in Northern Europe (Almquist 1970, Locket et al. 1974, Roberts 1995, Wunderlich and Schütt 1995, Mikhailov 2002, Rozwalka 2005, Almquist 2006, Tsvetkov et al. 2006, Van Keer et al. 2010, Ponomarev and Komarov 2013. However, it should be noted that the European range of C. frisia remains unclear since this species is difficult to distinguish from the closely related C. similis (Mikhailov 2002).

Unknown
Although the species is widespread, its preferred dune habitat, at least in the UK, is suffering from human pressure. The impact of this pressure on the species is unknown. The real population size and trend are unknown, but it is an abundant species in suitable habitat (e.g. Wunderlich and Schütt 1995, Roberts 1995, Almquist 2006. Threat type:

Terrestrial No
Clubiona frisia has been recorded particularly from coastal sites on sand dunes amongst vegetation on hilly or mountainous terrains and beaches often with Ammophila arenaria (e.g. Wunderlich and Schütt 1995, Roberts 1995, Almquist 2006 and it seems to prefer sand dune habitats. However, it is suggested that C. frisia is not restricted to sandy habitats (Rozwalka 2005). This species has also been found in construction sites in urban areas (Van Keer et al. 2010).

Unknown
Although the species is widespread, at least in the UK, its preferred habitat, dune areas, is suffering from human pressure. The impact of this pressure on the species is unknown. In the UK, this species has been recorded from only five hectares since 1992, with no evidence of decline (Dawson et al. 2017b) even though our SDM predicts suitable conditions in most of Great Britain. The species is recognised to be at risk from leisure use of its dune habitat, the construction of coastal defences and other infrastructure development (Dawson et al. 2017b). Sea level rises may cause a future threat to this species inhabiting sand dune sites. However, it has been suggested that C. frisia is not restricted to sandy habitats (Rozwalka 2005) and it has also been found on construction sites in urban areas (Van Keer et al. 2010).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection Needed -2.1. Land/water management -Site/area management There are numerous protected areas within the range of this species (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). To ensure its survival, at least in the UK, it would be important to manage dune habitats to control leisure use and recreational pressure damage (Dawson et al. 2017b). Distribution of this species needs to be confirmed, as it is difficult to distinguish from C. similis and therefore the true distribution of C. frisia remains unclear (Mikhailov 2002). Its occurrence in Mongolia needs to be confirmed. In addition, monitoring is needed to reveal current population and habitat trends and possible threats across its range. Schenkel, 1936 Species information This species is only known from China, originally reported from Gansu (Schenkel 1936) and also known from Hubei (Mikhailov 1998). It is present also in Guangdong, Linan and "other regions" (Hu 1979, Hu 1984, with unspecified localities. Reported from paddy fields (Hu 1979) and forests (Hu 1984 Basic research is needed to know the current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats.

Species information
Apochinomma ambiguum (Thorell, 1897) This species has been recorded in several localities in the eastern parts of Asia (Thorell 1895, Thorell 1897, Deeleman-Reinhold 2001 and should be present throughout South East Asia. Apochinomma nitidum's widespread distribution, presence in secondary habitats and tolerance to human settlements is similar to known introduced species in the region, which suggest this species might occur on other continents as well (Deeleman-Reinhold 2001). Corinna venezuelica (Caporiacco, 1955)  Only juveniles are known (Caporiacco 1955), hence species identity should be confirmed with adults.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm: Known only from El Junquito in Venezuela, recorded in 1949 (Caporiacco 1955). Only juveniles are known, hence the taxonomic status is dubious.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

91
This species has been recorded only once from the type locality in Bawo Lowalani of Pulau Nias Island, Indonesia, prior to 1890 (Thorell 1890a). Species of the family Ctenidae are nocturnal hunters which wander on the ground, on the soil surface or over the foliage, holding up their front legs while running. Females carry their egg sacs in their chelicerae or on the spinnerets but some species also store them on a solid surface (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). In the daytime, species of Phoneutria are found hiding in bromeliads, inside termite mounds, under fallen logs and rocks (Vellard 1936 Mining within the range of this species may be a possible future threat in case it critically affects suitable habitats (Global Forest Watch 2014). The Atlantic rainforest in Brazil is a highly threatened area with forest fragmentation and may cause a plausible threat to the survival of this species (https://www.sosma.org.br/projeto/atlas-damata-atlantica).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection At least part of the species range is inside protected areas (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). Monitoring is needed to confirm current population and habitat trends across the species range. The species was never detected north of Nova Friburgo nor South of Florianopolis. However, the species distribution modelling predicts it is likely to occur up to 200 km north (Linhares) and 500 km south (Parque Nacional da Lagoa dos Peixes). Further research should be targeted at detecting and monitoring the species at these two sites. Majunga town in Madagascar belongs to the ecoregion of tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001). The area is now covered by human constructions. However, no habitat data is given for this species and therefore the specific habitat preferences remain unknown.

Unknown
Major Importance -18. Unknown   (Tucker 1917). Ilisoa hawequas has been found in only one locality, in the Western Cape province of South Africa in 1973 (Griswold 1987). Unknown This species has been found only once in humus under dense undergrowth above a waterfall (Griswold 1987 Species of the family Cyatholipidae, commonly known as tree sheetweb spiders, build a horizontal sheetweb from which they hang from. This sheetweb usually has a smaller sheet below in litter, tree trunks or tree foliage (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat No known threats.

Conservation
In Place -1. Land/water protection -2. Land/water management The species was found within the Hawequas mountain catchment area and the area is managed following the Mountain Catchment The species was described from one female, with no locality, but the publication title refers this species to Baja California and other parts of Mexico (Banks 1898). Mexico and namely Baja California are mostly covered with xeric deserts and shrublands (Olson et al. 2001). However, the locality of this species is unspecified and therefore it is not possible to infer any specific habitat preference.

Unknown
Major Importance -18. Unknown This species was recorded in 1989 and suggested to be endemic to Mt. Babor (from 1750 to 1900 m a.s.l.) in Algeria (Beladjal et al. 1996) but it is likely that R. baborensis has a larger distribution and the reduced range of its records are due to scarce sampling (Marjan Komnenov, pers. comm.).  The taxonomic status of the species is unclear, with numerous closely related and morphologically similar species to be described (unpublished data).

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm: Given the relatively high number of records (Rossi 1846, Řezáč et al. 2008, Buchholz and Schröder 2013, Krause et al. 2013, Kovács et al. 2015, Krejčí et al. 2015, Zamani et al. 2014, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

3332
Eresus kollari is widely distributed in Europe (Rossi 1846, Řezáč et al. 2008, Buchholz and Schröder 2013, Krause et al. 2013, Kovács et al. 2015, Krejčí et al. 2015, Zamani et al. 2014. We should note however that the taxonomic status of the species is unclear and many of the records might be erroneous and referring to other, often undescribed, species.

2917464
Stable According to the current records the trend seems to be stable. Yet, this species is in need of taxonomic clarification, which might affect its real range. This species lives in camouflaged tube webs and feeds mostly on beetles (Baumann 1997). Females can use the same burrow for their whole life (Jones 1985) and therefore prey in the webs provide data on the prey captured by an individual during its lifetime (Zarcos and Piñero 2016). The life cycle of the ladybird spider lasts for 3-4 years (Kuznetsov 1985).

Threats
Ongoing -2.2. Agriculture & aquaculture -Wood & pulp plantations -5.1.1. Biological resource use -Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals -Intentional use (species is the target) -8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases Known threats for the species are wildlife traffic (for the pet trade) (pers. obs.) and habitat loss such as fragmentation in dry grasslands (Umann 1997). There may also be an impact caused by invasive species, such as Linepithema humile, specially in its southern range (Wetterer et al. 2009).

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
There are numerous protected areas within the predicted range of this species (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). This species is threatened in several countries (e.g. Slovenia see Kuntner et al. 2017) and protected in several others (Belgium, Holland for instance) and there have been suggestions for specific conservation measures to protect it (e.g. Krause et al. 2011 andLaycock et al. 2009). Species from the same genus (namely Eresus sandaliatus) have also been considered endangered in several countries (Netherlands see Noordijk et al. 2008, Belgium see Van Keer et al. 2008 and are protected in England, for instance, and there is an agreement with the Forestry Commission on the conservation and management of the site where the closely related E. sandaliatus has been recorded (Dawson et al. 2017a).
Near Halle, in The Netherlands, Eresus kollari was observed only from large patches with warm microclimate while the isolated patches were significantly less occupied. To conserve this species, there is a need for protection of a relatively large area of suitable habitat (Umann 1997). Taxonomic status clarification of this and related species is needed. The real population size and distribution need to be studied, along with possible threats. Some population trends need to be monitored. Tricalamus jiangxiensis is known from two localities in Jiangxi Province in China, recorded in 1990 (Li 1994). Ecosystem service type:

Unknown
The Jiangxi province is located within the ecoregion of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (Olson et al. 2001). Otherwise, specific habitat preferences are unknown.