Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders II: Gnaphosidae to Nemesiidae

Abstract Background The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the most widely used information source on the extinction risk of species. One of the uses of the Red List is to evaluate and monitor the state of biodiversity and a possible approach for this purpose is the Red List Index (RLI). For many taxa, mainly hyperdiverse groups, it is not possible within available resources to assess all known species. In such cases, a random sample of species might be selected for assessment and the results derived from it extrapolated for the entire group - the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI). The current contribution is the second in four papers that will constitute the baseline of a future spider SRLI encompassing 200 species distributed across the world. New information A sample of 200 species of spiders were randomly selected from the World Spider Catalogue, an updated global database containing all recognised species names for the group. The 200 selected species where divided taxonomically at the family level and the familes were ordered alphabetically. In this publication, we present the conservation profiles of 45 species belonging to the families alphabetically arranged between Gnaphosidae and Nemesiidae, which encompassed Gnaphosidae, Idiopidae, Linyphiidae, Liocranidae, Lycosidae, Micropholcommatidae, Mysmenidae and Nemesiidae.


Introduction
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the most widely used information source on the extinction risk of species (Lamoreux et al. 2003, Rodrigues et al. 2006, see also Cardoso et al. 2011, Cardoso et al. 2012. It is based on a number of objective criteria, which are relatively easy to apply when adequate information is available (IUCN 2001). The Red List has been used to raise awareness about threatened species, guide conservation efforts and funding, set priorities for protection, measure site irreplaceability and vulnerability and influence environmental policies and legislation (Gardenfors et al. 2001, Rodrigues et al. 2006, Martín-López et al. 2009).
One of the uses of the Red List is to evaluate and monitor the state of biodiversity and a possible approach for this purpose is the Red List Index (RLI). The RLI helps to develop a better understanding of which taxa, regions or ecosystems are declining or improving their conservation status. It provides policy-makers, stakeholders, conservation practitioners and the general public with sound knowledge of biodiversity status and change and tools with which to make informed decisions. The RLI uses weight scores based on the Red List status of each of the assessed species. These scores range from 0 (Least Concern) to 5 (Extinct/Extinct in the Wild). Summing these scores across all species, relating them to the worst-case scenario -all species extinct and comparing two or more points in time, gives us an indication of how biodiversity is doing. At a global level, the RLI has been calculated for birds (Butchart et al. 2004, Hoffmann et al. 2010, mammals (Hoffmann et al. 2011), amphibians (Hoffmann et al. 2010), corals ) and cycads (United Nations 2015).
For many taxa, mainly hyperdiverse groups, it is not possible within available resources to assess all known species. In such cases, a random sample of species might be selected for assessment and the results derived from it extrapolated for the entire group -the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI, Baillie et al. 2008). The SRLI is now being developed for plants (Brummitt et al. 2015) and efforts towards a SRLI of butterflies (Lewis and Senior 2010) and Odonata are also in progress (Clausnitzer et al. 2009).
Spiders currently comprise over 47000 species described at a global level (World Spider Catalog 2017). Of these, only 199 species (0.4%) have beed assessed (www.redlist.org), of which the vast majority are from the Seychelles Islands or belong to the golden-orb weavers, Nephilidae (e.g. Kuntner et al. 2017). To these, a large number will be added in the near future, such as 55 species endemic to the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos and 25 endemic to the Azores, all in Portugal (Cardoso et al. 2017, Borges et al. submitted). The vast majority of spiders assessed to date are therefore either regionally or taxonomically clustered and do not represent the group as a whole. The current contribution is the second in four papers (Seppälä et al. 2018) that will constitute the baseline of a future spider SRLI encompassing 200 species distributed across the world.

Methods
A sample of 200 species of spiders were randomly selected from the World Spider Catalogue (2018), an updated global database containing all recognised species names for the group. The 200 selected species where divided taxonomically to the family level, and those familes were ordered alphabetically. In this publication, we present the conservation profiles of 45 species belonging to the families alphabetically arranged between Gnaphosidae and Nemesiidae, which encompassed Gnaphosidae, Idiopidae, Linyphiidae, Liocranidae, Lycosidae, Micropholcommatidae, Mysmenidae and Nemesiidae.
For all analyses, we used the R package red -IUCN red-listing tools . This package performs a number of spatial analyses based on either observed occurrences or estimated ranges. Functions include calculating Extent of Occurrence (EOO), Area of Occupancy (AOO), mapping species ranges, species distribution modelling using climate and land cover, calculating the Red List Index for groups of species, amongst others. In this work, the EOO and AOO were calculated in one of two ways: -for extremely range-restricted species for which we assumed knowledge of the full range, these values were classified as observed, the minimum convex polygon encompassing all observations used to calculate the EOO and the 2 km x 2 km cells known to be occupied used to calculate the AOO. When the EOO was smaller than the AOO, it was made equal as per the IUCN guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2017).
-for widespread species or those for which we did not have confidence to know the full range, we performed species distribution modelling (SDM). This was done based on both climatic (Fick and Hijmans 2017) and landcover (Tuanmu and Jetz 2014) datasets, at an approximately 1x1 km resolution. Before modelling, the world layers were cropped to the region of interest for each species and reduced to four layers through a PCA to avoid overfitting. In addition, latitude and longitude were used as two extra layers to avoid the models predicting presences much beyond the known region following the precautionary principle. We then used the Maxent method (Phillips et al. 2006) implemented in the R package red. Isolated patches outside the original distribution polygon were excluded from maps to avoid overestimation of EOO and AOO values. All final maps and values were checked and validated by our own expert opinion. KMLs derived from these maps were also produced using the red package. The cells (2x2 km), predicted to be occupied, were used to calculate the AOO. When the EOO was smaller than the AOO, it was made equal as per the IUCN guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2017).
To infer possible changes in range and/or abundance and for forest species only, we have also consulted the Global Forest Watch portal (World Resources Institute 2014), looking for changes in forest cover during the last 10 years that could have affected the species.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
In the species description, the type locality is stated to be in Labrador, which is in Canada (Fox 1938). This locality is almost certainly incorrect considering this species is closely related with Gnaphosa sonora. Later authors assumed its true provenance is Mexico, probably Labrados in Sinaloa, however there is a possibility it has been totally mislabelled (Platnick and Shadab 1975).

Habitat (narrative)
Since the type locality is uncertain (Platnick and Shadab 1975), habitat preferences of this species cannot be inferred. However, if the record was indeed misread as Labrador but was made in Labrados, the habitat in the region is tropical and subtropical coniferous forests with patches of tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001).

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Gnaphosids do not build webs but hunt actively. This family preys on a Threat type: Threats: Use type: Ecosystem service type: Research needed: variety of ground-dwelling arthropods, such as ants, other spiders and termites (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Other
International Very important -

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to know current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats.

Habitat (narrative)
Crikvenica is located on the coast of the Adriatic sea and is mainly forested area, belonging to the ecoregion of Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub, although today the coastline is heavily urbanised (Olson et al. 2001). The preferred habitat remains unknown.

Ecology
Unknown 1 Unknown

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Species of the same genus are usually caught with pitfall traps and found under rocks or amongst leaf litter (Platnick and Shadab 1982). Gnaphosids do not build webs but hunt actively. This family preys on a variety of ground-dwelling arthropods such as ants, other spiders and termites (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Justification for trend
No known threats to the species.

Habitat
Terrestrial No

Habitat (narrative)
Occurs in a wide range of habitats, namely in aspen, spruce, fir, lodgepole, pine and jackpine forests Shadab 1975, GBIF.org 2018e). The range of this species stretches across temperate coniferous forest and temperate xeric shrublands (Olson et al. 2001).

Justification for trend
This species does not seemto have any specific habitat requirements.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Adult females of this species have been reported from March to November and adult males from May to late September. The species has been recorded at altitudes as high as 4150 m (Platnick and Shadab 1975).

Threats
Past Threats: Conservation action type: Conservation actions: Use type: Ecosystem service type: Research needed: -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
There are numerous protected areas inside the range of this species (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). No population size estimates exist.

Unknown
Unknown Unknown

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
All specimens have been found at high altitudes in meadows alongside a glacier and a damp grassy valley, always amongst rocks or low grasses (Caporiacco 1934).

Justification for trend
Given the current levels of global warming, the putative habitat of this mountain species is probably decreasing in area and quality.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Species of the same genus are usually caught with pitfall traps and found under rocks or amongst leaf litter (Platnick and Shadab 1982). Gnaphosids do not build webs but catch or roll up their prey with silk. This family prey on a variety of grounddwellers like insects, ants, other spiders and termites (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Justification for threats
Since this species has been recorded at high altitudes near glaciers, there is a possibility that the ongoing climate change is a threat to its survival.

Conservation
In Place -

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Gnaphosids do not build webs but hunt actively. This family preys on a variety of ground-dwelling arthropods, including ants, other spiders and termites (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Chamberlin 1936, Platnick andShadab 1983), it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Number of locations:
Trend:

Range description
This species is largely restricted to central California, USA, from Fresno north to Chico (Chamberlin 1936, Platnick andShadab 1983).

Justification for number of locations
The main geographic area (as defined by Platnick and Shadab 1983), occupied by this species, also includes major urban areas of human habitation that are currently increasing in their spread. This urbanification of the landscape also includes the spread of agriculture in central California and the construction of roads and highways throughout the area. Yet, we have no data to estimate whether or not these affect the species or how many locations there could be. No population size estimates exist.

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
The only habitat data available mention the species has been found under rocks, logs and bark in forested areas, however, these forested areas include camp-grounds, parks, canyons, tree farms and orchards (Platnick and Shadab 1983).

Justification for trend
Although the area, in which this species is found, has had documented logging (Global Forest Watch 2014), the extent of this logging is minimal. Much of the area in which this species resides is also heavily developed (e.g. Sacramento, San Francisco, Modesto, San Jose etc). It is unknown however if the expansion of these urban areas is increasing the extinction risk for the spider.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Gnaphosids do not build webs but actively hunt for their prey. This family preys on a variety of ground-dwelling arthropods, including ants, termites and other spiders (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Justification for threats
The main geographic area (as defined by Platnick and Shadab 1983), occupied by this species, also includes major urban areas of human habitation that are currently increasing in their spread. This urbanisation of the landscape also includes the spread of agriculture in central California and the construction of roads and highways throughout the area. These possible threats are only suspected and cannot be confirmed with existing data.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection Only three records of this species are known Gajbe 1976, Gajbe 2003), therefore species distribution models could not be produced with confidence. Only observed records are presented.

Range description
This species is known from India, recorded in the 1970s Gajbe 1976, Gajbe 2003). Use type:

Habitat (narrative)
The western part of India is covered with tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests and deserts and shrublands (Olson et al. 2001

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Species of the same genus are usually caught with pitfall traps and found under rocks or amongst leaf litter (Platnick and Shadab 1982). This family preys on a variety of ground-dwelling arthropods, including ants, termites and other spiders (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Other
International Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders II: Gnaphosidae ...

Use and trade:
Ecosystem service type:

Region for assessment:
-Global

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records, all from 1981 (FitzPatrick 2007), it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
Zelotes mulanjensis is only known from the Mulanje Massif in Malawi (FitzPatrick 2007).

Justification for trend
Possible decline of the species habitat due to ongoing deforestation with expansion of agriculture within its small range.

Justification for trend
We assume the entire area of the species constitutes a single subpopulation.

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
This species has been found from grassland with rocky outcrops and low shrubs (FitzPatrick 2007). We do not know however if it also occurs in other habitat types.

Justification for trend
Deforestation and agriculture expansion are leading to the loss of habitat area and quality across the range.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The ecology and traits of this species are unknown. Gnaphosids are free-living, grounddwelling spiders which usually store their egg sacs on the ground (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997). Species of the same genus are usually caught with pitfall traps and found under rocks or amongst leaf litter (Platnick and Shadab 1982). This family preys on a variety of ground-dwelling arthropods, including ants, termites and other spiders (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Ongoing Threats: Conservation action type:

Justification for threats
There is ongoing deforestation in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve, with conversion to agricultural fields (Global Forest Watch 2014). However, as the species is found in grasslands, the extent of increase in extinction risk is unknown.

Conservation
In Place -

Justification for conservation actions
Although the entire species range is probably legally protected, effective protection is needed with future recovery of lost habitat. Enforcement of new policies and regulations would guarantee such effectiveness. In addition, education of local people towards the importance of natural resources would facilitate the habitat and species recovery.

Very important
Research needed: Map of records (Google Earth):

Justification for research needed
Monitoring of the changes in this species population due to deforestation and land use change is a priority.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Number of locations:
Trend:

Number of individuals:
Trend: Causes ceased?:

Range description
This species has been reported from Whanganui in New Zealand, last recorded in 1962 (Todd 1945, Forster 1968). No population size estimates exist. Population densities of Cantuaria can be relatively high; up to 592 burrows in 20 square metres have been found. The reduced number of specimens in the description (Todd 1945) and the lack of sightings in the last half century (Forster 1968) might indicate that C. wanganuiensis occurs in low densities.

Unknown
Unknown

Terrestrial
Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
A single specimen was found in bushes in unknown habitat (Todd 1945). Whanganui is a city located in the North Island of New Zealand on the coast of South Taranaki Bay and was originally covered with temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (Olson et al. 2001

Ecology and traits (narrative)
The spiders of the genus Cantuaria are large trapdoor spiders that build burrows with trapdoors and are likely to hunt by leaping out of the burrow but never totally leaving it for catching the prey (Marples and Marples 1972). However, the single C. wanganuiensis specimen was found in an open burrow without a trapdoor and is rather small (Todd 1945). The burrows of this genus are usually found in areas where the soil is not too rocky and there is not much vegetation but different species may have different microhabitat preferences (Marples and Marples 1972). Spiders of the same genus appear to feed on earthworms and also parts of beetles have been found from the bottom of their burrows.
Cantuaria species usually lay about 30 eggs kept in a cocoon and the young may stay in a burrow for quite a long time, the female specimens rarely being seen as they stay in their burrows while males leave the burrows to look for a mate (Marples and Marples 1972).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place

Range description
This species has a highly restricted distribution and is found only from the Porongurup National Park. It is often locally abundant, although only known from the Millinup Pass and Bolganup Creek areas (Rix et al. 2017a).

Justification for trend
Climate change driving the continuing decline of habitat quality, as are past and possible future wildfires in the region (Rix et al. 2017a).

Justification for trend
Climate change driving the continuing decline of habitat quality, as are past and possible future wildfires in the region (Rix et al. 2017a).

Justification for number of locations
Climate change is causing continuing decline of habitat quality across the entire range of the species, but past and possible future wildfires in the region are the main concern (Rix et al. 2017a). Forest fires may cause a plausible threat to this species' survival since it has been reported to be endemic to the wet karri forests (Rix et al. 2017a). A single future fire may affect the two known subpopulations.

Justification for trend
Inferred from decline in habitat quality.
-(c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat Threat type: Threats:

Habitat (narrative)
This species is endemic to the tall, wet karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) forests of the Porongurup Range (Rix et al. 2017a).

Justification for trend
There is a decline in the quality of habitat in the Porongurup National Park due to climate change (Rix et al. 2017a).
Major Importance -

Justification for threats
Climate change is causing continuing decline of habitat quality across the entire range of the species, but past and possible future wildfires in the region are the main concern (Rix et al. 2017a).

Conservation
In Place -

Justification for conservation actions
At least part of the range of this species is inside protected areas, namely Porongurup National Park (Main 1985,GBIF.org 2018d, Rix et al. 2017a). Since fires form a major threat to the survival of this species, it would be appropriate to work on fire and habitat managament and restoration to guarantee the possible recovery, for example by storing plant seeds. Also education and awareness would be appropriate since this species has only been found to occur in a restricted area with potential for local populations to know and support its preservation (Rix et al. 2017b).

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO:

Justification for research needed
Conservation planning within an area-based management plan could be critical to avoid extinction of the species by possible extensive wildfires. In addition, a monitoring scheme for both the population and habitat could help confirm inferred trends.

Taxonomy Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arhtropoda Arachnida Araneae Idiopidae

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Hewitt 1916), it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species has been recorded from South Africa only (Gauteng and North-West Province), but has not been seen since 1915 (Hewitt 1916).

Justification for trend
Possibly extinct or so rare that it is on the way to extinction due to habitat loss.

Justification for trend
Possibly extinct or so rare that it is on the way to extinction due to habitat loss. Trend:

Justification for number of locations
There are several records for Pretoria, but all fall within the urban limits of the city. Urbanisation seems to be a major threat to the species. All the records are more than 100 years old.

Justification for trend
Possibly extinct or so rare that it is on the way to extinction due to habitat loss.
-(c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat

Yes
No Unknown

Population Information (Narrative)
Possibly extinct or so rare that it is on the way to extinction due to habitat loss.

Justification for trend
Possibly extinct or so rare that it is on the way to extinction due to habitat loss.

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Generation length (yr):
Dependency of single sp?: Threat type:

Threats:
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
This species was originally associated with grasslands (Hewitt 1916).

Justification for trend
Possibly extinct or so rare that it is on the way to extinction due to habitat loss for urbanisation.
Major Importance

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Idiopids are called the armoured trapdoor spiders. Idiopids live in burrows and most close it with a lid (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006). They sit and wait for prey, usually medium to large-sized insects. Given their low mobility, colonies are frequently constituted of close relatives. Research needed:

Justification for threats
Based on its historical distribution, urbanisation seems to be the largest threat to this species. It is important to note that Pretoria, where most of the specimens were collected, houses the National Collection of Arachnida -people often bring specimens that they catch or photograph here. Yet, as no specimens of this species have been collected or photographed, we suggest that the species is probably extinct.

Conservation
In Place -

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO: -1.5. Research -Threats

Justification for research needed
If not extinct, basic research is needed to know current distribution in more detail and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats.

Number of locations:
Trend:

Number of individuals:
Trend: Causes ceased?:

Range description
Only a single collection of this species is known, from "north of Mt. Washburn, Yellowstone N.P., Wyoming, USA", from 1940 (Dupérré 2013). The range is therefore effectively unknown. No population size estimates exist.

Subpopulations
Unknown Unknown Unknown

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
No habitat information was listed on the only vial of this species. However, it is from "North of Mt. Washburn", Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, so we know that the species should live at high elevation (Dupérré 2013). The Yellowstone National Park is located within the ecoregion of temperate coniferous forests (Olson et al. 2001 Research needed:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Agyneta species build sheet webs under which the spider lives. The web usually has threads both above and below. Once the prey is caught in the web, the prey is bitten from beneath and pulled through the web to be eaten. There is no retreat; if the spider is disturbed, it will flee. Linyphiids usually live in woods or amongst the leaf litter and females commonly deposit their egg sacs on smooth surfaces (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
The only known locality is from within the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park, so at least the known historical range is within a protected area.

Range description
This species has been recorded from Mongolia and Russia (Loksa 1965, Seyfulina 2005, Tanasevitch 2005) and the species distribution model predicts it to be potentially present in the Korean Peninsula and China as well.

Population Information (Narrative)
No population data is available for this species. However its relatively large range indicates that it likely possesses a large population.

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
Although the exact habitat of this spider is not recorded, most Agyneta reside in the leaf litter layer within forests. The ecoregion across the range of this species is mostly temperate broadleaf and mixed forests but also montane and temperate grasslands and shrublands (Olson et al. 2001

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Agyneta species build sheet webs under which the spider lives. The web usually has threads both above and below. Once the prey is caught in the web, the prey is bitten from beneath and pulled through the web to be eaten. There is no retreat; if the spider is disturbed, it will flee. Linyphiids usually live in woods or amongst the leaf litter and females commonly deposit their egg sacs on smooth surfaces (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
This species has been reported from the Bolshekhekhtsyrsky Nature Reserve and Verkhne-Bureinsky Nature Reserve so at least part of the range of this species is inside protected areas (Tanasevitch 2005).

Justification for research needed
Although the geographic range of this species is large, little is known about the species other than its morphological taxonomy. This includes a lack of knowledge on the habitat, ecology, population size, population trend, habitat trend and possible threats.

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Banks 1901, Crosby and Bishop 1925, Chamberlin 1949, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species has been recorded from United states to Canada (Banks 1901, Crosby andBishop 1925, Chamberlin 1949).

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species. Trend:

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Locations
Not applicable.

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Unknown
Stable

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no threats.

Yes
Yes Yes

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Subpopulations
Stable System: Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Mature specimens of this species occur from April to November (Kaston 1948). Ceratinella are active hunters in the leaf litter.

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation action type:
Conservation actions: Use type: Use type: Ecosystem service type: Research needed:

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
Part of the wide range of this species is within protected areas, since it is widepread across USA and Canada (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). Given its wide distribution and the already existing protected areas, it is not considered to deserve strict conservation concern.
Other International International Very important Trend:

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
This species has been recorded from Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan (Tanasevitch 1987, Tanasevitch 1990, Ponomarev and Komarov 2013, Martynovchenko and Mikhailov 2014, Ponomarev and Chumachenko 2014 and the species distribution model predicts it to be present also in Armenia and Turkey. Size:

Extent of occurrence
Generation length (yr):

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
Yes Yes

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
M. ovalis appears to prefer relatively high altitudes in mixed forests with Alnus, Abies and/ or Fagus, amongst litter and under stones (Tanasevitch 1987).

Justification for trend
No decline in area or quality is reported.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Mansuphantes build sheet webs under which the spider lives and the sheet web usually has threads both above and below. Once the prey is caught in the web, the prey is bitten from beneath and pulled through the web to be eaten. There is no retreat; if the spider is disturbed, it will flee (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
At least part of the range of this species is protected. It has been recorded within the area of Algeti in Georgia and Caucasus nature reserve and Teberda state reserve in Russia, for instance (Tanasevitch 1990). Therefore, this species is not considered to be of conservation concern.

Very important
Research needed: Map of records (Google Earth):

Justification for research needed
Monitoring is needed to confirm suspected population and habitat trends.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Suppl. material 19
Species Distribution Model

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Hogg 1909, Rainbow 1917, Berland 1931, Hickman 1939, Blest 1979, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details)

Range description
This species has been recorded from the islands of Macquarie (Australia), Campbell, Auckland and Antipodes (New Zealand) (Hogg 1909, Rainbow 1917, Berland 1931, Hickman 1939, Blest 1979. It is notable that it was last recorded almost 40 years ago.

Habitat (narrative)
This species has been found under logs and stones, amongst litter and debris on soil, always on the forest floor. It occurs in a variety of sheltered microhabitats (Blest 1979). The islands, from which this species has been recorded, are mostly bare rock partly covered with grass and shrubs.

Generation length (yr):
Dependency of single sp?: Threat type: Threats: Conservation action type:

Conservation actions:
Use type: Use and trade: Ecosystem service type:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Parafroneta species build sheet webs under which the spider lives (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Fage and Simon 1936, Holm 1962, Miller 1970, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species should be relatively widespread in East Africa (Fage and Simon 1936, Holm 1962, Miller 1970.

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species. Trend:

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Locations
Not applicable

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Unknown
Stable

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist. Widespread species with no known threats.

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
This species has been recorded from bamboo forest (Miller 1970), amongst grass and moss at a small stream in rainforest (Holm 1962) and from alpine meadows of Mount Kinangop (Fage and Simon 1936

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Pelecopsis species are usually active ground hunters, moving in between the leaf litter.

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for trend
The extent of occurrence of this species is extremely large and it has been recorded as having a large geographic range as far back as the 19th century ( Habitat specialist:

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Unknown
Stable

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
Yes

Population Information (Narrative)
The exact number of individuals is unknown but it is hypothesised to be extremely large based on the large number of localities from which this species has been recorded.

Terrestrial
No

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Pelecopsis species are active ground hunters, moving in between the leaf litter.

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species. Trend:

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Crosby 1929, Holm 1967, Millidge 1981, Eskov and Marusik 1994, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This is a holarctic species recorded from Canada, Alaska and Greenland (Denmark) (Crosby 1929, Holm 1967, Millidge 1981, Eskov and Marusik 1994 and the species distribution model predicts it could be present also in Russia in the area close to the Bering Strait.

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Justification for trend
A widespread species with no known threats.

Trend:
System: Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
This species has been reported mostly in litter and in moss (Crosby 1929, Holm 1967 which indicates they live mostly in forest habitats in the boreal zone. It is often collected in willow thickets, herb covers on a slope, Empetrum vaccinium uliginosum heath and Carex bogs, but rarely found under rocks (Marusik 2015

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Scotinotylus build sheet webs under which the spider lives, the web usually having threads both above and below. Once the prey is caught in the web, it is bitten from beneath and pulled through the web to be eaten. There is no retreat; if the spider is disturbed, it will flee (Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué 1997).

Threat type:
Threats: Conservation action type:

Conservation actions:
Use type: Ecosystem service type:

Research needed:
Threats Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for conservation actions
At least part of the range of this species is within protected areas in USA and Canada (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). Given the wide distribution and the already existing protected areas, it is not considered as of conservation concern.

Justification for research needed
Monitoring is needed to confirm current population and habitat trends.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records , it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species has been recorded from Japan, Honshu Island only and last recorded in 1998 . Threat type:

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Subpopulations
Unknown Unknown Unknown

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
Japan is covered with temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (Olson et al. 2001

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Tapinocyba spiders are small active hunters across a variety of substrates.

Threats:
Conservation action type:

Conservation actions:
Use type:

Use and trade:
Ecosystem service type: Research needed: -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for conservation actions
At least part of the species range is inside protected areas, for example Chichibu Tama Kai National Park and several smaller natural parks and protected areas in the NE part of the range (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Range description
This species has been recorded from several countries in Europe, from Iceland to Slovenia and it has also been recorded from Japan (Chyzer and Kulczynski 1894, Braendegaard 1946, Tullgren 1955, Thaler 1970, Miller 1971, Palmgren 1976, Roberts 1987, Agnarsson 1996, Ono et al. 2009, Marusik 2015. The species distribution model predicts it to be a relatively widespread species throughout Europe.

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Not applicable
Trend:

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Justification for trend
Widespread population with no known threats.

Yes
Yes Yes Unknown

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist, but it is a widespead and common species.

Habitat (narrative)
This species occurs in moist places such as snow beds often associated with Sibbaldia-Salix herbacea, lichen heaths on mountain slopes and herb fields in dry localities (Marusik et al. 2015). Records have been made also in high alpine grass heaths (at 2000-3030 m elevation), in Northern Europe at lower altitudes under spruces and in birch forests associated with lichens (Thaler 1970).

Trend in extent, area or quality?:
Habitat importance:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Tiso species are ground dwellers, hunting actively for small insects.

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection
Use type: Use and trade: Ecosystem service type: Research needed:

Justification for conservation actions
The predicted range of this species is large, ranging from Europe to Asia, including several protected areas (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Justification for research needed
Monitoring is needed to confirm population and habitat trends of this species across its range. Tanasevitch

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Tanasevitch 2013), it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species is only known from three localities, all in fragmented forests (Tanasevitch 2013). The species distribution model predicts it to be spread over a larger area in Israel and surrounding countries.

Justification for trend
Possible loss of EOO due to loss and fragmentation of forest area in the region. Threat type:

Justification for fragmentation
Although we do not know the number of individuals of this species, we assume its population to be severely fragmented, as it has been recorded exclusively in small forest patches of which probably more than 50% are smaller than needed to guarantee the survival of the species (Tanasevitch 2013).

Habitat (narrative)
This species has been collected exclusively in small forest patches (Tanasevitch 2013).

Justification for trend
Loss and fragmentation of forests in Israel and surrounding countries.

Justification for conservation actions
The preservation and recovery of forests in the region would be the only way to guarantee the survival of the species.

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to confirm the current distribution and population size and trends, along with the species ecology and biotic and abiotic requirements. Monitoring is needed to know future population and habitat trends.

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species. Size:

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
Yes Yes

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
Specimens of A. pheidoleicomes have been found under stones and amongst litter and debris in pine and chestnut forests, under stones in beaches and near waters and in dry grasslands and fields. Some records were associated with ants and termites, including in their nests (Bosselaers 2009, Bosmans 2011, Seyyar et al. 2016

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Liocranids are free-living spiders commonly found on the ground in forest litter (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006). This species was suggested to be clearly myrmecophylic since A. pheidoleicomes was found under stones along with yellow ants of the species Pheidole pallidula (Nylander, 1849) at least in Laerma (Rhodos)(Bosselaers 2009). The only male recorded was found in a termite nest, whereas females were always collected associated with ants (Bosmans 2011). On the other hand, later collected specimens of A. pheidoleicomes were not observed in the company of ants even though the collection site was suitable for them (Seyyar et al. 2016). Males were observed in April, females from March to May.

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for conservation actions
There are several protected areas within the range of this species (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Use and trade:
Ecosystem service type: Research needed:

Justification for research needed
Monitoring is needed to confirm current population and habitat trends, along with possible threats across this species range. Trend:

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Gertsch 1941, Vetter 2001, GBIF.org 2018b, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species has been recorded from the south-western United States (Gertsch 1941, Vetter 2001, GBIF.org 2018b and the SDM predicts suitable habitat also in northern Baja California, Mexico.

Justification for trend
The review of this genus was undertaken by Vetter (2001)  Trend: records of this species known since 2001 (GBIF.org 2018b), the determination of a trend is not possible.

Locations
Not applicable.

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Population
Unknown.

Justification for trend
We assume the population to be stable.

Yes
Yes Yes Unknown

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Justification for trend
Although it is known that desertification is increasing in this part of the United States (United States Department of Agriculture 2003), it is unknown whether or not this species prefers sand dunes or grasslands for its habitat.
Major Importance

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Liocranids are free-living spiders commonly found on the ground in forest litter. Often accompanied with ants or termites. Species of the same genus have been collected from burrows of mammals and large spiders. A female from the genus Neoanagraphis has been observed to feed on Drosophila flies and small crickets but refused mosquitoes, larval waxmoth and spiders (Vetter 2001).

Threat type:
Threats: Conservation action type:

Conservation actions:
Use type: Ecosystem service type:

Research needed:
Threats Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection

Justification for conservation actions
There are many protected areas (national parks, nature reserves, wilderness areas etc.) within the range of this species in the south-western US (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Justification for research needed
There is only the most basic biology known about this species (morphologic taxonomy and very basic habitat data). Population trends, life history and possible unidentified threats should be assessed.

Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arthropoda Arachnida Araneae Lycosidae

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Justification for trend
Any definite range change over time was not available in the records, but we assume it to be stable being a widespread species.

Yes
Yes Yes

Not applicable
Trend:

Trend:
System: Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to this species.

Unknown
Stable

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
Yes

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
Some of the specimens were found on "Spanish mountains" (Simon 1876), under rocks and detritus (Roewer 1960) and meadows (Breitling et al. 2016). Habitats are mostly within the ecoregion of Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub (Olson et al. 2001).

Stable
Major Importance

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).
Only females of A. villica have been found in early April and they either had egg sacs with them or laid eggs after they have been captured. One female was observed in the lab and, by the end of April, her offspring hatched and climbed on to her back. The mother lived until June and, after that, the offspring ate her (Murphy and Tongiorgi 1979).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection Use type: Use and trade: Ecosystem service type: Research needed:

Justification for conservation actions
Many parts of the range of this species are within proctected areas, so it is not considered to be of conservation concern (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Justification for trend
A widespread species able to adapt to a variety of habitat types.

Justification for trend
A widespread species able to adapt to a variety of habitat types.

Yes
Yes Yes

Locations
Not applicable.

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Unknown
Stable Yes Yes Yes

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Generation length (yr):
Dependency of single sp?: Threat type:

Terrestrial
No

Habitat (narrative)
This species is known from tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests and in moist teak forests, as well as Southern Indian moist deciduous forests and riparian fringing forests (Patel 2003). It has also been recorded in household gardens ( Stable

Justification for trend
This species seems to be well adapted to many habitat types, including man-made, the habitat trend being stable.
Major Importance

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Species of the genus Hippasa stay in their retreat for the day and wait for prey at the entrance during the night. They build funnel webs like agelenid spiders (Tanikawa 2006). In banana agroecosystems, H. greenalliae used the base of pseudostems in sheet webs provided with a funnel (Keswani and Ganesh 2014).

Threats:
Conservation action type:

Conservation actions:
Use type:

Use and trade:
Ecosystem service type: Ecosystem services: Research needed: -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
Many parts of this species range are within protected areas (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017). In addition, this species seems to adapt to a variety of different habitats, even modified by humans, e.g. plantations and therefore it is not considered to be of conservation concern.

Justification for ecosystem services
Since this species has been recorded from agro-ecosystems, it may be useful for humans in controlling the abundance of pests.

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO:

Justification for research needed
Monitoring is needed to confirm current population and habitat trends.

Taxonomy Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Arthropoda Arachnida Araneae Lycosidae

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
Only one female specimen has been recorded from an unspecified locality in Guatemala, prior to 1916 (Strand 1916).

System:
Habitat specialist: Trend in extent, area or quality?: Habitat importance:

Population Information (Narrative)
No population size estimates exist.

Subpopulations
Unknown Unknown Unknown

Terrestrial
Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
Guatemala is mostly covered with tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001). However, since the locality of this species is unspecified, the preferred habitat remains unknown.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and after hatching the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to identify current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species, along with possible threats.

Range description
This species is known only from the type locality in Kankunda, Congo, recorded in 1949 (Roewer 1959).

Habitat (narrative)
A single specimen was found from a tributary of a river (Roewer 1959).

Trend in extent, area or quality?:
Habitat importance:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and after hatching the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Very important
Research needed:

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO: -

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
This species has been recorded originally from Maharashtra, India (Pocock 1901). There are also two records for Tasmania, Australia (GBIF.org 2018a) which should be confirmed.

Habitat (narrative)
Maharashtra is located within the ecoregion of deserts and xeric shrublands (Olson et al. 2001). Today, there seems to be mostly fields and human settlements. Since this species was recorded over one hundred years ago from an unspecifed locality, habitat preference remains unknown.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and after hatching the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to identify current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species, along with possible threats.

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO:

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
This species has been recorded from Maharashtra and Gujarat in India, last recorded in 1998 (Pocock 1901, Tikader and Malhotra 1980, Patel and Vyas 2001.

Habitat (narrative)
Maharashtra and Gujarat are located within the ecoregion of deserts and xeric shrublands (Olson et al. 2001). When examining the satellite map, the area is mostly covered with fields and dry scrubs. Otherwise, the preferred habitat of this species remains unknown.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and after hatching the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
Koyna National Park is located in the area where the species was recorded and may occur inside this protected area as well (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to identify current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species, along with possible threats.

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO:

Region for assessment:
-Global

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Patel and Vyas 2001, Malik et al. 2015, Pocock 1901, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species is known from India, specifically in Maharashtra and Gujarat and it was last recorded in 1998 (Patel and Vyas 2001, Malik et al. 2015, Pocock 1901. Suitable habitat may also exist along the south-eastern coast of Pakistan. No population size estimates exist.

Habitat
Terrestrial Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
Maharashtra and Gujarat are located within the ecoregion of deserts and xeric shrublands (Olson et al. 2001). When examining satellite images, there seems to be mostly fields and dry scrubs. Otherwise, the preferred habitat of this species remains unknown.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and after hatching the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
This species is only known from the type locality Chichivac, Guatemala, recorded in 1934 (Chamberlin and Ivie 1942).

Subpopulations
Unknown Unknown Unknown

Terrestrial
Unknown

Habitat (narrative)
The type locality is covered with tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf and coniferous forests (Olson et al. 2001). Habitat preference of this particular species is unknown.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Basis (narrative)
Given the relatively high number of records (Tikader 1970, Song 1982, Song et al. 1999, Sen et al. 2015, Dhali et al. 2017, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling (see methods for details).

Range description
This species is recorded only from India (Tikader 1970, Sen et al. 2015 and China (Song 1982, Song et al. 1999, Dhali et al. 2017, although possibly occurring in several neighbouring countries.

Justification for trend
A widespread species able to adapt to a variety of habitat types.

Locations
Not applicable.

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Unknown
Stable

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Habitat (narrative)
No specific habitat was described for any of the records. Yet, P. kupupa was recorded in Gorumara National Park in India, where the forest type was described as follows: terai grassland, riverine forests, dry mixed forests, wet mixed forests and sal forests (Sen et al. 2015). It seems to prefer high altitude habitats.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Ecology for this species is unknown. Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for conservation actions
There are several protected areas inside the range of P. kupupa, specifically this species has been recorded inside Gorumara National Park and in Buxa Tiger Reserve in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal in India (Dhali et al. 2017, Sen et al. 2015.

Region for assessment:
-Global

Geographic range
Biogeographic realm:

Range description
This species has been recorded from Ethiopia prior to 1906 (Strand 1906, Strand 1908. The habitat preference of this particular species is unknown. Ethiopia is mostly covered with tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannahs and shrublands with patches of tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001).

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Ecology for this species is unknown. Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006

Range description
This species is common and widespread throughout SE Asia (Simon 1905, Gravely 1924, Schenkel 1963, Tikader and Malhotra 1980, Yongqiang 1992, Yin et al. 1995, Song et al. 1999, Biswas and Raychaudhuri 2003, WANG and ZHANG 2014, Pan et al. 2016, Dhali et al. 2017. night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection

Justification for conservation actions
This species has been recorded, for example, inside Gorumara National Park (Dhali et al. 2017), Purna Wildlife sanctuary (Siliwal et al. 2003) and Rani Veerangana Wildlife Sanctuary (Patil et al. 2013). There seems to be a lot of protected areas inside the predicted range of this species (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017) and therefore, it is not considered of conservation concern.

Map of records (Google Earth):
Basis of EOO and AOO:

Justification for ecosystem services
Possible biocontrol services in orchards and other plantations.

Justification for research needed
Monitoring is needed to confirm current population and habitat trends.

Number of locations:
Trend:

Number of individuals:
Trend:

Range description
Only known from an unspecified locality in China (Yin et al. 1995). Research needed:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Ecology for this species is unknown. Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to identify current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species, along with possible threats.

Range description
This species is widely distributed in the southern parts of North America and Central America (Blackwall 1846, Whitcomb et al. 1963, Turnbull 1966, Agnew et al. 1985, Breene et al. 1993, Durán-Barrón et al. 2009). Trend in extent, area or quality?:

Extent of occurrence
Habitat importance:

Justification for number of locations
No known threats to the species.

Unknown
Stable

Justification for trend
Widespread species with no known threats.

Yes
Yes

Terrestrial
No

Justification for trend
This species has been observed in various habitats, including urban settings.

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Ecology for this species is unknown. Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Conservation
In Place -1.1. Land/water protection -Site/area protection -1.2. Land/water protection -Resource & habitat protection Use type: Use and trade: Ecosystem service type: Research needed:

Justification for conservation actions
Many parts of this species range are within proctected areas, so it is not considered to be of conservation concern (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017).

Basis (narrative)
Despite a relatively high number of records (Qu et al. 2010), the species distribution models were not found to be reasonable by our own expert opinion. Hence, only observed records are presented.

Range description
This species was only recently described and there is only one paper on it. The only records are from Yunnan, China, last recorded in 2006 (Qu et al. 2010), very close to the Burmese border. Conservation action type:

Habitat (narrative)
The specimens were collected from Yunnan Gaoligong Mountains, both in a village and along a road (Qu et al. 2010). Yunnan is a mountainous region covered with tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (Olson et al. 2001).

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Ecology for this species is unknown. Lycosids are free-living, ground-dwelling spiders, mostly living in burrows or seeking refuge under rocks. These spiders are usually active at night when they actively forage. The female carries egg cocoons in her spinnerets and, after hatching, the mother carries the juveniles on her abdomen from a few days to a few weeks (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006).

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats.

Conservation
In Place Region for assessment:

-Global
The type locality is mostly desert and xeric shrublands (Olson et al. 2001) and currently heavily cultivated and urbanised areas. Otherwise, the preferred habitat of this species remains unknown.

Unknown
Major Importance -18. Unknown Research needed:

Ecology and traits (narrative)
Nemesiids live in burrows lined with silk and most close it with a lid (Jocque and Dippenaar-Schoeman 2006). They sit and wait for prey, usually medium to large-sized insects. Given their low mobility, colonies are frequently constituted by close relatives.

Threats
Past -12. Other options -Other threat

Justification for threats
No known threats to the species.

Justification for research needed
Basic research is needed to identify current distribution and population size and trends, ecology and traits of the species along with possible threats.
started. The Chicago Zoological Society CBOT Endangered Species Fund made such workshop possible through targeted funding.