Biodiversity Data Journal :
Research Article
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Corresponding author: Sarah J. Bourlat (S.Bourlat@leibniz-zfmk.de)
Academic editor: Krizler Tanalgo
Received: 14 Aug 2023 | Accepted: 24 Oct 2023 | Published: 14 Nov 2023
© 2023 Sarah Bourlat, Martin Koch, Ameli Kirse, Kathrin Langen, Marianne Espeland, Hendrik Giebner, Jan Decher, Axel Ssymank, Vera Fonseca
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Bourlat SJ, Koch M, Kirse A, Langen K, Espeland M, Giebner H, Decher J, Ssymank A, Fonseca VG (2023) Metabarcoding dietary analysis in the insectivorous bat Nyctalus leisleri and implications for conservation. Biodiversity Data Journal 11: e111146. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.11.e111146
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In this study, we aim to uncover diet preferences for the insectivorous bat Nyctalus leisleri (Leisler's bat, the lesser noctule) and to provide recommendations for conservation of the species, based on the analysis of prey source habitats. Using a novel guano trap, we sampled bat faeces at selected roosts in a forest in Germany and tested two mitochondrial markers (COI and 16S) and three primer pairs for the metabarcoding of bat faecal pellets.
We found a total of 17 arthropod prey orders comprising 358 species in N. leisleri guano. The most diverse orders were Lepidoptera (126 species), Diptera (86 species) and Coleoptera (48 species), followed by Hemiptera (28 species), Trichoptera (16 species), Neuroptera (15 species) and Ephemeroptera (10 species), with Lepidoptera species dominating in spring and Diptera in summer. Based on the ecological requirements of the most abundant arthropod species found in the bat guano, we propose some recommendations for the conservation of N. leisleri that are relevant for other insectivorous bat species.
bat conservation, Chiroptera, diet analysis, metabarcoding, prey source habitats, Vespertilionidae
Bats play an important role in pest control, seed dispersal and pollination (
N. leisleri is a bat of 13-18 g and a wingspan of 26-32 cm (
Current threats to N. leisleri include: 1) the reduction in insect abundance due to increased pesticide use; 2) changes in land use leading to the disappearance of fallow land, permanent grassland, hedges and margins, causing the loss of insect-rich habitats; 3) habitat loss due to the draining of wetlands and water bodies in forests and open countryside; 4) habitat degradation through reduction of natural or semi-natural forests; 5) the loss of old trees with high roost potential; 6) renovation work on buildings leading to loss of roosts and roosting opportunities and 7) wind-energy development due to direct collision with rotor blades especially during migration (
Bats prey upon a wide variety of arthropod species of various sizes, diurnal and nocturnal and flying or non-flying, but many studies find that Lepidoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera represent the dominant prey orders (
Direct observation of feeding is generally very difficult in nocturnal bats and visual identification of prey arthropod remains in bat faeces does not generally result in taxonomic identification of the prey below order or family level (
In this study, we sampled bat droppings (guano) at the roost of N. leisleri in a natural forest reserve in North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany during March to September 2017. There were three defined objectives to our study. First, to provide a high-resolution analysis of arthropod prey species and seasonal trends in the insectivorous bat species N. leisleri. Second, to compare the performance of two fragments of varying lengths for COI, the 313 bp ‘mini barcode’ (mlCOIintF combined with dgHCO2198, hereafter COImldg) (
The data underlying this study have been submitted to the NCBI SRA archive under accession number PRJNA752700.
Research site
Sampling was carried out in the EU Natura 2000 site 'Waldreservat Kottenforst' (DE5308303), located near Bonn, Germany between 180 and 200 m above sea level. The forest has an area of 2450 ha and is dominated by sub-atlantic and medio-atlantic oak (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea) and oak-hornbeam (Quercus sp., Carpinus betulus) forest, partially with varying admixture of beech (Fagus sylvatica). Hydromorphic soils with high water tables provide numerous small water bodies. The forest is managed for wood production and includes "wilderness areas", corresponding to unmanaged stands. To the north and east, the forest borders urban areas of the city of Bonn and the highly urbanised and industrialised Rhine valley. To the north-west, the Kottenforst is connected to the Waldville forested area and west to southeast, the forest borders agricultural areas.
Capture and radio-tracking of bats
Bats were radio-tagged between 2014 and 2016 to find roost trees within the Natura 2000 site, in order to align management decisions with nature conservation goals. Bats were caught with mist nets at small water bodies and at potential foraging sites. Suitable animals (female, not pregnant, no injuries, minimum average weight) were equipped with transmitters (Telemetrie-Service Dessau) weighing between 0.3-0.5 g (Permission number: RSK 67.1-1.03.20-18/14-M). Tags were attached between the scapulae using surgical glue. Roost trees were tracked down the day after tagging and checked for the presence of bats for the next 10 - 14 days until transmitters fell off or the transmitter battery was consumed. For this study, bat guano was sampled at the main roost tree of Nyctalus leisleri, which was identified in 2014 in a woodpecker cavity at a height of 9 m. This roost tree was used constantly during the summer months for several consecutive years.
Bat guano sampling
A novel type of guano trap was installed beneath the roost entrance (Fig.
Returning bats show pre-dawn swarming behaviour at occupied roost-trees (
The trap was checked after nights when swarming was likely to happen. It was assumed that good conditions for swarming were warm nights, with no wind and no rain in the second half of the night. During unfavourable weather conditions, the trap was checked on a regular basis every 2-3 days to remove leaves, small twigs and other debris. Pellets were collected from the net, stored in 15 ml sterile sampling tubes and dried with silica gel and/or stored in 2-propanol. This sampling method is non-invasive and bats do not have to be caught or disturbed to collect faeces for dietary analyses. However, pellets collected can originate from different individuals and possibly even different bat species, due to interspecific swarming behaviour at the roost. Therefore, species identity of the bats was checked using both COI and 16S primers upon library sequencing and data analysis. After species identity check, nine samples confirmed to be from N. leisleri were included for further analyses. All samples of bat faeces collected and analysed in this study are detailed in Suppl. material
DNA extraction and amplicon library preparation from bat faeces
DNA was extracted from bat guano pellets using the Zymo Quick-DNA™ Fecal/Soil Microbe Midiprep kit, following the manufacturer’s instructions. Guano pellets stored in ethanol were first dried and approximately 40 mg of guano were subsampled from the pellet pool for DNA extraction. All samples (stored in ethanol and silica) were extracted in three replicates including a negative control consisting of sterile water. DNA concentration was measured using the Quantus™ Fluorometer with the QuantiFluor® dsDNA System (Promega). All samples were diluted to 2 ng/µl.
PCR amplification was performed using a 2-step PCR approach. The first PCR was carried out in a total volume of 15 µl per replicate, using 7.5 µl of Q5 Hot Start High ‐ Fidelity 2X Master Mix (NEB), 0.5 µl of each primer (10 µM), 0.5 µl of Bovine Serum Albumin (Thermo Fisher Scientific), 5 µl Sigma H2O and 1 µl of DNA. PCR1 conditions involved denaturation at 98°C for 2 min, followed by 20 cycles at 98°C for 40 sec, 50°C for 40 sec and 72°C for 30 sec and a final extension step at 72°C for 3 min. DNA extraction negative controls and PCR negative controls (water) were included for every PCR reaction.
PCR1 products were purified using the HT ExoSAP-ITTM (Thermo Fisher Scientific), with 4 µl ExoSAP for 15 µl PCR 1 product, following the manufacturer’s protocol.
In a second PCR step, the Illumina index adaptors were attached to the purified PCR1 product, which was split into two tubes, each with 7 µl of PCR1 product. Amplifications were carried out in a total volume of 25 µl with 12.5 µl of Q5 Hot Start High ‐ Fidelity 2X Master Mix (NEB), 1.2 µl of each primer (10 µM), 1 µl of Bovine Serum Albumin (Thermo Fisher Scientific), 2 µl Sigma H2O and 7 µl PCR 1 product. PCR2 conditions involved a denaturation at 98°C for 2 min, followed by 20 cycles at 98°C for 40 sec, 55°C for 30 sec and 72°C for 30 sec and a final extension step at 72°C for 3 min.
All replicate PCR2 products were pooled, visualised by electrophoresis on a 2% agarose gel (120 V 20 min, 150 V 40 min, 450 mA, 150 W) and purified with the QIAquick gel extraction kit (Qiagen). All purified PCR products were then diluted to the same concentration (3 ng/µl) and pooled into two amplicon libraries. One library comprised the 313 bp COI fragment and the second library the 157 bp COI and 110 bp 16S fragments.
Sequencing
The purified amplicon library pools were sequenced on four runs on the Illumina MiSeq platform (2 x 300 bp) using the v.2 Chemistry at the Centre for Genomic Research (CGR, Liverpool University).
Bioinformatic methods
Data sequenced at the Centre for Genomic Research (Liverpool, UK) had already undergone a first quality check. The raw fastq files were trimmed for the presence of Illumina adapter sequences using Cutadapt version 1.2.1 (
Depending on marker, two different reference databases were used. COI sequences were blasted against the German Barcode Of Life (GBOL) database, downloaded from (https://doi.org/10.20363/gbol-20210128) on 29 January 2020 using the following settings: (a) 'query coverage high-scoring sequence pair percent' (-qcov_hsp_perc) was set to 90, meaning that a sequence was reported as match when 90% of the query formed an alignment with an entry of the reference file; (b) minimum percent identity (-perc_identity) was set to 97, requiring the reference and query sequence to match by at least 97% to be reported as a match. The format of the output file was customised using the –outfmt settings ‘6 qseqid sseqid pident’. Taxonomic assignment with the GBOL database yielded 36 arthropod species for mldg and 241 arthropod species for COIArt in the nine guano samples from N. leisleri (Suppl. material
The mitochondrial 16S sequences were blasted against a customised 16S reference database downloaded from NCBI GenBank on (29 December 2020). The following search parameters were applied:16S[All Fields] AND (animals[filter] AND is_nuccore[filter] AND mitochondrion[filter] AND ("100"[SLEN] : "1000"[SLEN])). Taxonomic assignment with the GenBank database using a 97% blastID yielded 119 arthropod species for the nine guano samples from N. leisleri (Suppl. material
For the ecological analyses, ASV tables converted to a presence/absence matrix were uploaded into R studio (version 1.4.1106; R version 4.0.4.). For statistical analysis, nine guano samples, assigned uniquely to N. leisleri with a 100% Blast match, were analysed (KF01-01, KF01-02, KF01-03, KF01-06, KF01-07, KF01-08, KF01-09, KF01-10, KF01-11). Venn Diagrams were prepared using the package VennDiagram (version 1.6.20) (
Taxonomy assignment for the 16S mitochondrial marker was carried out against the NCBI database. This database is more incomplete than the GBOL database for the arthropods, especially arthropod species from Germany. These assignments are more likely to represent the best available match and are, therefore, likely biased at the species level. Based on this, we excluded taxonomic assignments with 16S from the analysis based on RRA.
Molecular identification of species occupying the roosts
All bat species identification was confirmed using both COI and 16S primers upon library sequencing and data analysis, since guano provides a non-invasive source of DNA that includes information from the bat as well as dietary items, parasites and pathogens (
Molecular identification of bat (and other mammal) species found in the roosts, detected with metabarcoding of guano pellets. Only samples that had a 100% BLAST match to N. leisleri were included in the analysis (in bold). If several species were detected, the samples were excluded from the dietary analyses.
Presumed roost of |
sampling date |
roost ID |
M. nattereri |
N. leisleri |
P. auritus |
M. bechsteinii |
M. mystacinus |
A. flavicollis |
Nyctalus leisleri |
26.03.17 |
KF01-01 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
24.05.17 |
KF01-02 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
28.05.17 |
KF01-03 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
02.06.17 |
KF01-04 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
14.06.17 |
KF01-05 |
x |
x |
||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
23.06.17 |
KF01-06 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
26.06.17 |
KF01-07 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
29.06.17 |
KF01-08 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
08.07.17 |
KF01-09 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
09.08.17 |
KF01-10 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
14.08.17 |
KF01-11 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
05.09.17 |
KF01-12 |
x |
|||||
Nyctalus leisleri |
14.06.17 |
KF02-01 |
||||||
Myotis bechsteinii |
14.06.17 |
KF02-02 |
x |
|||||
Myotis nattereri |
26.03.17 |
KF03-01 |
x |
x |
x |
x |
||
Myotis nattereri |
26.06.17 |
KF03-02 |
x |
|||||
Myotis bechsteinii |
26.03.17 |
KF04-01 |
x |
Denoising with Dada2 yielded 1519 ASVs (amplicon sequence variants) for COI mIdg, 1107 ASVs for COIArt and 565 ASVs for 16S for the samples included in our analysis (KF01-01, KF01-02, KF01-03, KF01-06, KF01-07, KF01-08, KF01-09, KF01-10, KF01-11). Taxonomic assignment with the GBOL database yielded 36 arthropod species for mIdg and 241 species for COIArt for the nine guano samples (Suppl. material
The bat species occupying each roost were checked by molecular identification of the bat droppings upon library sequencing and data analysis (see Methods section), confirming the presence of N. leisleri exclusively with 100% BLAST match in nine of our samples (KF01-01, KF01-02, KF01-03, KF01-06, KF01-07, KF01-08, KF01-09, KF01-10, KF01-11). Presumed bat species occupying the roosts, based on radio tracking, were mostly, but not always identified accurately, with additional bat species sometimes detected (e.g. in samples KF01-05 and KF03-01 where Myotis bechsteinii, Myotis nattereri, Plecotus auritus and Myotis mystacinus were detected in addition to Nyctalus leisleri) (Table
The most species-rich arthropod orders found in the nine samples of N. leisleri guano for all markers combined (COImldg, COIArt and 16S) were Lepidoptera (126 species), Diptera (86 species) and Coleoptera (48 species), followed by Hemiptera (28 species), Trichoptera (16 species), Neuroptera (15 species) and Ephemeroptera (10 species). Other less species-rich orders (with less than 10 species) were the Araneae, Psocoptera, Hymenoptera, Opiliones, Entomobryomorpha, Ixodida, Isopoda, Blattodea, Lithobiomorpha and Siphonaptera (Table
Arthropod orders found and number of species in each order in N. leisleri guano, all mitochondrial markers combined (COImldg, COIArt and 16S)
Order/Marker |
16S |
mldg |
COI_Art |
Total |
Araneae |
1 |
0 |
6 |
7 |
Blattodea |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
Coleoptera |
25 |
6 |
26 |
48 |
Diptera |
36 |
7 |
50 |
86 |
Entomobryomorpha |
0 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
Ephemeroptera |
2 |
5 |
6 |
10 |
Hemiptera |
20 |
3 |
9 |
28 |
Hymenoptera |
0 |
1 |
3 |
4 |
Isopoda |
1 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
Ixodida |
2 |
0 |
0 |
2 |
Lepidoptera |
18 |
8 |
106 |
126 |
Lithobiomorpha |
0 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
Neuroptera |
7 |
4 |
10 |
15 |
Opiliones |
2 |
0 |
1 |
3 |
Psocoptera |
1 |
0 |
6 |
6 |
Siphonaptera |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
Trichoptera |
2 |
1 |
14 |
16 |
Total |
119 |
36 |
241 |
358 |
The most efficient marker in terms of arthropod species detection from bat guano for all samples combined was the COIArt marker with 241 arthropod species overall in contrast to the mldg marker (36 species) or the 16S marker (119 species). The same pattern was observed for the class Insecta and the arthropod orders Lepidoptera and Diptera (with 230, 106 and 50 species detected, respectively with COIArt). For the Coleopterans, similar numbers of species were detected with the COIArt and the 16S marker (26 and 25 species, respectively) (Fig.
The number of arthropod species recovered per sample also varied depending on the primer pair used, but overall, the COIArt primer pair proved to be most effective (Fig.
A Number of species detected per arthropod order in the guano samples at roost KF01 depending on marker and primer pair. B Relative number of species per arthropod order in the guano samples at roost KF01 depending on marker and primer pair. C Number of species detected per arthropod order in the guano samples at roost KF01 depending on marker and primer pair (rarefied dataset). D Relative number of species per arthropod order in the guano samples at roost KF01 depending on marker and primer pair (rarefied dataset). For this analysis, the ASV table was converted to a presence/absence matrix and read counts were not taken into account.
The overall number of species found in the bat guano was between 60-100 species from the end of March to the end of June, reaching a peak at the end of June and beginning of July and declining rapidly at the beginning of August (< 75 species) to the middle of August (< 40 species) (Fig.
Timeline showing arthropod community composition at order level in the guano of N. leisleri, all three markers combined (COImldg, COIArt, 16S). With the exception of plots showing RRA assigned to major groups depending on sampling date (4C and 4F), read counts were not taken into account. A, D Number of species of each arthropod order detected at each time point; B, E Relative number of species per arthropod order as a percentage of the diet; C, F Species detected in each arthropod order, based on relative read abundances.
The 25 most abundant Lepidoptera species found in the bat guano, based on RRA for the COI marker, ranged from 27.6% (Cydia fagiglandana) to 0.05% (Agriopis leucophaearia) of total lepidopteran reads across all analysed samples. Other species included: Apamea unanimis (21.7%), Xanthorhoe ferrugata (15.6%), Hypena proboscidalis (8.6%), Axylia putris (6.4%), Cnephasia asseclana (6.1%), Dioryctria abietella (2.9%), Eupsilia transversa (2.7%), Oligia versicolor (2.6%), Peridroma saucia (1.8%), Mimas tiliae (0.9%), Ochropleura plecta (0.7%), Polypogon tentacularia (0.5%), Xestia c-nigrum (0.2%), Lomaspilis marginata (0.2%), Apamea monoglypha (0.2%), Mythimna albipuncta (0.1%), Sideridis reticulata (0.1%), Phlogophora meticulosa (0.07%), Peribatodes rhomboidaria (0.07%), Calliteara pudibunda (0.06%), Oligia fasciuncula (0.06%), Mamestra brassicae (0.06%), Subacronicta megacephala (0.06%) and Agriopis leucophaearia (0.05%) (Suppl. material
Based on abundance information (average RRA across all samples), the 20 most abundant arthropod species found in the bat guano, based on the COI marker, were four species of Ephemeroptera: Ephoron virgo (13.2%), Ephemera danica (11.6%), Caenis horaria (2.8%), Baetis fuscatus (2.3%), nine species of Lepidoptera: Cydia fagiglandana (12.9%) , Apamea unanimis (10.2%), Xanthorhoe ferrugata (7.3%), Hypena proboscidalis (4.0%), Axylia putris (3.0%), Cnephasia asseclana (2.8%), Dioryctria abietella (1.4%), Eupsilia transversa (1.3%) and Oligia versicolor (1.2%), one species of Trichoptera: Lepidostoma hirtum (9.0%), three species of Diptera: Fannia leucosticta (2.3%), Tipula lunata (1.8%) and Cheilotrichia cinerascens (1.0%), two species of Coleoptera: Lagria hirta (3.4%) and Haploglossa marginalis (1.1%) and one species of Heteroptera: Troilus luridus (0.9%) (Suppl. material
Ecological characteristics of the most abundant Lepidopteran species found in the bat guano, based on RRA. References to create the table can be found in Suppl. material
Order |
Family |
Genus, species |
Wingspan (mm) |
Larval food |
Flying time |
Number of generations each year |
Habitat |
Lepidoptera |
Noctuidae |
Apamea unanimis |
29-38 |
Poaceae, mainly Phalaris arundinacea and Phragmites australis |
May-July |
1 |
Moist areas, including wetlands, riparian forests, wet meadows and stream or ditch margins |
Lepidoptera |
Tortricidae |
Cydia fagiglandana |
12-16 |
Fagus, Quercus, Castanea sativa, in the seeds |
April-September |
1 |
Forests, woodlands, parks, hedgerow trees, isolated trees |
Lepidoptera |
Geometridae |
Xanthorhoe ferrugata |
18-22 |
Galium, Stellaria, Campanula, Cirsium |
April-September |
2 |
Shrublands, fringes, forest edges, forest roads, and other mostly woody habitats |
Lepidoptera |
Tortricidae |
Cnephasia asseclana |
15-18 |
A wide range of herbaceous plants |
June-August |
1 |
Open woodlands, scrub, hedgerows, grasslands, gardens |
Lepidoptera |
Erebidae |
Hypena proboscidalis |
25-38 |
Largely Urtica dioica, but also Humulus, Stachys, Aegopodium |
May-September |
2 |
Areas with nettles in deciduous, non-deciduous, mixed forests and gardens |
Lepidoptera |
Noctuidae |
Axylia putris |
30-36 |
Many including Urtica, Trifolium, Triticum, Polygonum, Rumex, Medicago |
April-September |
2 |
Herbaceous meadows, hedges and bushes, stream banks and ditches, fens, deciduous and mixed forests, orchard meadows, gardens, parks |
Lepidoptera |
Pyralidae |
Dioryctria abietella |
27-33 |
Abies, Picea, Larix, Pinus, shoots and cones |
May-October |
2 |
Coniferous and mixed forests, parks |
Lepidoptera |
Noctuidae |
Oligia versicolor |
24-28 |
Carex, Poa, Luzula, Bracylipodium |
June-August |
1 |
Wet meadows, bogs, wet heaths, forest marshes |
Lepidoptera |
Noctuidae |
Eupsilia transversa |
40-48 |
Populus, Salix, Corylus, Fagus, Quercus, Ulmus, Malus, Crataegus, Rubus, Prunus and others |
August-November, February-April |
1 |
Dry to moist deciduous and mixed forest, hedges, bushland, orchard meadows, gardens, parks |
Trichoptera |
Lepidostomatidae |
Lepidostoma hirtum |
14-20 |
Scraper and shredder of algae and vegetation |
June-September |
1 |
Larvae in running water and littoral zones of standing waters |
Ephemeroptera |
Polymitarcyidae |
Ephoron virgo |
20-32 |
Filter feeders in sediment |
July-September |
1 |
Nymphs in the lower stretches of midsized and larger rivers |
Ephemeroptera |
Ephemeridae |
Ephemera danica |
35-45 |
Filter feeders in gravel |
April-September(main season in May-June) |
1 |
Nymphs in clear water rivers and lakes |
Ephemeroptera |
Caenidae |
Caenis horaria |
8-12 |
Filter feeders in mud and silt |
May-September |
1 |
Nymphs in pools and margins of rivers, canals and streams or in lakes and ponds |
Diptera |
Fanniidae |
Fannia leucosticta |
5-7 |
Rotting plant material, compost, carrion, dung |
June-September |
? |
Larvae in rotting plant material, compost, garbage, bat roosts, bird nests |
Diptera |
Tipulidae |
Tipula lunata |
~ 40 |
Plant roots |
April-July |
1 |
Larvae mainly in the soil and in the litter layer of forests and shrubs or under moss cushions |
Diptera |
Limoniidae |
Cheilotrichia cinerascens |
12-16 |
Dead Fagus leaves |
May-October |
1 |
Larvae in the leaf litter in wetter beech forests, in swamps and marshes |
Guano samples provide a non-invasive source of DNA that includes information from the bat, but also dietary items, parasites, and pathogens (
Our study reveals that Nyctalus leisleri feeds on a wide range of arthropods comprising 358 species, with the most diverse orders being the Lepidoptera (126 species), Diptera (86 species) and Coleoptera (48 species), followed by Hemiptera (28 species), Trichoptera (16 species), Neuroptera (15 species) and Ephemeroptera (10 species). Based on read abundance data, our study shows that Nyctalus leisleri feeds primarily on Lepidopteran and Ephemeropteran taxa, mainly nocturnal insects including pest arthropods that infest forest trees. N. leisleri showed the behaviour of a generalist forager, switching between prey according to seasonal availability; however, our results should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size analysed here and possible inter-individual variability.
The most speciose arthropod prey group detected was the Lepidoptera with 125 species detected. Most of these belonged to the night active families Noctuidae, Tortricidae and Geometridae (Suppl. material
Patterns of prey switching have been observed in bat populations (
According to
Many of the insects identified in the guano as bat prey are known to display unique ecological characteristics (see Table
Most of the Lepidoptera and Diptera species are common species found in a wide variety of habitats (Table
As apex-predators for the insect fauna in European landscapes, bats provide crucial ecosystem services, such as pest control (
However, the loss of insect biomass in open landscapes and forests (
In this study, we show that metabarcoding has the capacity to improve the quality and resolution of ecological data, such as diet and prey data, which can be a turning point for the success of habitat and conservation management measures. From the N. leisleri prey data obtained, we derive a set of key recommendations for N. leisleri habitat and conservation management:
This study was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, through the German Barcode of Life project (GBOLII, FKZ01LI1501) and the European Commission Life Forests-waterworlds project (LIFE13 NAT/DE/000147). We thank the Biological Station Bonn-Rhein-Erft, Karina Jungmann, Heinz Schumacher and Rolf Mörtter for help with the fieldwork and Lisa Apfelbacher for the illustration.
SJB and VGF designed and supervised the project. MK designed the guano traps and MK, RM and AS conducted the fieldwork. KL conducted the molecular lab work. HG and AK conducted the bioinformatic analysis and SJB, AK, VGF, MK and ME the data interpretation. SJB wrote the paper with contributions from VGF, AK, KL, MK, ME. All authors approved the final manuscript.
Samples of bat faeces collected in this study (Kottenforst, Bonn, Germany, season 2017). When taxonomy analysis for each guano sample retrieved only N. Leisleri with 100% BLAST match, the sample was included for further analysis (nine samples marked in bold).
ASV table for the guano samples showing taxonomic assignments for all markers COImldg, COIArt and 16S. All taxonomic assignments represent matches at > 97% identity.
The most frequently found Lepidopteran prey species in the guano for all N. leisleri samples, calculated using relative read abundances. All taxonomic assignments represent matches at > 97% identity.
The most frequently found arthropod prey species in the guano for all N. leisleri samples, calculated using relative read abundances. All taxonomic assignments represent matches at > 97% identity.
R code used to produce Figures 2, 3 and 4.
References used to create Table 3.