Introduction

General description

Project description

Sampling methods

Geographic coverage

Description: 

South-west Corsica, Ajaccio Region. The Loretto site, located a few hundred metres from the city centre of Ajaccio adjoining the industrial Loregaz site, is made up of a plant mosaic, alternating open areas and groves. The Suartello site, located on the edge of a wooded area, is made up of an open environment (e.g. grassland) and a plant mosaic environment. The Vignola site facing the sea (ca. 200 m inland) was partly degraded by heavy rotary grinding in 2018, 4 years before the study. The proximity of the sites to each other makes it possible to consider their average temperatures and precipitation as being similar. Thus, they have a warm temperate climate with an average annual temperature of 16.3°C. However, some differences exist; Vignola is more exposed to sea spray and Suartello is slightly shadier due to the presence of trees on one side (Figs 1, 2).

Figure 1.  

Geographical localisation of the three studied sites and total specimen abundances sampled per site.

Figure 2.  

Floral habitats of the three sites on April (Loretto on the left, Suartello in the middle and Vignola on the right).

Taxonomic coverage

Traits coverage

Temporal coverage

Collection data

Usage licence

Data resources

Additional information

General discussion

Anthophilous insect diversity

In comparison to the sampling of 2022 (Maestracci et al. 2024), the number of collected insects was relatively similar (4012 in 2022 vs. 3714 in 2023) as well as for Coleoptera (2187 in 2022 vs. 2027 in 2023) with only 7.32% of decrease. On the other hand, the numbers of sampled Hymenoptera (1368 in 2022 vs. 1125 in 2023) and Lepidoptera (152 in 2021/22 vs. 109 in 2023) were much lower with a decrease of 17.76% and 28.29%, respectively. On the contrary, many more Diptera were collected (288 in 2022 vs. 450 in 2023) with an increase of 56.25%. In terms of diversity, about 60 news species were identified mainly in the Hymenoptera (+35 species) and the Diptera (+19 species) (Suppl. material 1), consistent with the efforts made to increase species identifications in these orders since the publication of the first database.

The total species richness for each order over the two studied years and the three sampled sites was estimated with iChao-1 using the diversity indices menu of Past software 4.17 (Hammer et al. 2001, Suppl. material 2). Afterwards, our data completeness was calculated for Diptera (66%), Hymenoptera (70%), Coleoptera (80%) and Lepidoptera (98%) (Suppl. material 2). These completeness differences between insect orders are probably due to some bias in our sampling protocol (i.e. active collection by sweep net) for small and/or fast species, as a similar collecting effort was indiscriminately applied to all the orders (i.e. all spotted anthophilous insects were captured). Passive sampling protocols would have given different results as it is a more continuous collecting method, capturing of non-anthophilous invertebrates, but without the floral visit information (Westphal et al. 2008).

The number of anthophilous insects in Corsica is actually not known since no global insect inventory has been conducted and only a few groups have been recently studied/revised. By comparing our data with the well known and recently studied Corsican taxa, our sampling is estimated to cover 42% of the 57 island's diurnal Lepidoptera (Berquier and Andrei-Ruiz 2017) and 37% of wild bees diversity out of a total of 361 reported species (Ropars et al. 2025). We have also 29% of the hoverflies diversity out of a total of 168 species (Cornuel-Willermoz and Lebard 2024) and only 8% of the Buprestidae, Chrysomelidae and Scarabaeidae diversity out of a total of 92, 124 and 66 species, respectively (Jiroux 2019). For the last percentage, it is important to take into account that the three cited Coleoptera families contain many non-anthophilous species that will not be sampled with our method. It also noteworthy that the proportions of ‘rare’ species, represented by singletons in our database, highly vary amongst orders from 4% for Lepidoptera to 39% for Diptera (Suppl. material 2).

It is surprising that our species list is so diverse, considering that less than 3 ha were surveyed over a 9-month period in a limited region representing a mosaic of lowland maquis vegetation. However, only half of the species are common to both years (Fig. 3), with the other half being exclusive to one year and in a balanced manner. This inter-annual variation is well known from various pollinator communities and result from a combination of environmental and ecological factors (Alarcón et al. 2008, Burkle and Irwin 2009, Lázaro et al. 2010, Rohde and Pilliod 2021, Fang et al. 2024). We plan to explore further which drivers affect the studied anthophilous communities in a future paper.

Figure 3.  

Venn diagram between sampling year of 2022 and 2023 with number of species specific to these two years (to the left and right) and common to both years (in the middle).

Now analysing our 2023 dataset, in term of abundances, more specimens were collected of Coleoptera (54%) than for any other insect Order (Hymenoptera: 30%, Diptera: 12% and Lepidoptera: 3%) (Fig. 4 - left). The five most numerous families (representing 66% of all the specimens) were the Apidae bees and the Mordellidae beetles (16% each), the Melyridae beetles (10%), the Syrphidae flies and the Oedemeridae beetles (9% each) and the Scarabaeidae beetles (6%) (Fig. 4 - left).

Figure 4.  

Anthophilous insect families and orders' abundance (on the left) and diversity (on the right) and proportions associated (for orders below, abundance then diversity). For family identities, please refer to Suppl. material 3.

The diversity of the studied anthophilous insect communities was dominated by the order of the Hymenoptera (44% of the morpho-species) followed by the Diptera (27%), the Coleoptera (22%) and, lastly, the Lepidoptera (6%) (Fig. 4 - right). The three richest families were the Syrphidae flies (13%), the Megachilidae bees (10%) and the Apidae bees (8%) (Fig. 4 - right). Hymenoptera, in particular, wild bees, are the most important pollinators in these ecosystems (Kantsa et al. 2023) with a greater specific richness founded in the Mediterranean climatic zones (Michener 2007, Ollerton 2017, Ghisbain et al. 2023). It is estimated that approximately 720 bee species are present in the Mediterranean Basin (Ropars et al. 2020). On the other hand, although Coleoptera are more diverse in the Tropics, they are not negligible in Mediterranean ecosystems (Proctor et al. 1996, Bernhardt 2000, Moore et al. 2018, Li et al. 2021).

This work contributes to fill the existing knowledge gap on anthophilous insects, both for the French Pollinator National Plan and the Corsican Pollinator Territorial Plan (Cornuel-Willermoz and Andrei-Ruiz 2021). Networks analyses will be perfomed on this dataset to detect in the studied ecosystems, amongst other things, the keystone pollinating species, but also the rare sensitive ones (Maestracci et al., unpubl.).

Seasonal variations of the anthophilous insect communities

Another important finding of our study is the seasonality and dynamics of anthophilous species throughout the year. According to preliminary analyses (Maestracci et al., unpubl.), we pooled the bimonthly anthophilous communities into three seasonal groups (winter-autumn, spring and summer). The temporal variation in insect assemblages (ln(abundances+1)) was visualised using a non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis with Euclidean distances (Hammer et al. 2001). The NMDS plot demonstrates clear separation between insect communities amongst the chosen seasons, with minimum overlap (Fig. 5). The species composition of these groups was tested using a non-parametric analysis of similarities (ANOSIM, Suppl. material 4). The species assemblages within these groups were significantly different (ANOSIM test: R² = 0.74, p = 0.0001), with pairwise comparisons showing significant differences after Bonferroni correction (p ≤ 0.013).

Figure 5.  

NMDS representation of insect communities on anthophilous insects abundance (euclidian distance on data-transformed ln (abundance+1)) for each field sampling (each point represents data for one date-one site). Colour codes according to the three chosen seasons. Stress associated (means of evaluating the adequacy of our ordination) and ordination coordinates in X and Y.

Anthophilous insects of the ‘winter-autumn’ community were less numerous with about half the abundances of the two other seasonal communities (Fig. 6 – upper graphs), but its diversity was only slightly less rich (Fig. 6 – lower graphs).

Figure 6.  

Anthophilous insects' abundance and diversity according to NMDS groups.

The ‘winter-autumn’ community was characterised by a co-dominance of Hymenoptera, particularly Apidae and Diptera, particularly Syrphidae and Bombyliidae (Fig. 6 – left column). The spring community of anthophilous insects was dominated by the abundance of Coleoptera (~ 67% of the specimens) from the Melyridae, Oedemeridae and Scarabaeidae families; followed by Hymenoptera (Apidae, 18%). The species diversity of the spring community was characterised by Hymenoptera and Coleoptera (respectively ~ 37% and ~ 33%) followed by Diptera species (~ 23%) (Fig. 6 – centre column). The summer community of anthophilous insects was also dominated by the abundance of Coleoptera (~ 67% of the specimens), but from different families (Mordellidae, Cerambycidae, Chrysomelidae), followed by several Hymenoptera families such as Halictidae, Apidae and Megachilidae (Fig. 6 – right column). On the other hand, the species diversity during summer was largely dominated by Hymenoptera (~ 49%), with many species recorded from the Megachilidae, Apidae and Halictidae families. Coleoptera represented ~ 25% of the species diversity, the families Mordellidae, Buprestidae and Chrysomelidae being the most represented. On the other hand, the hoverflies showed a high level of diversity even though they were not abundant (41 species with 318 individuals). Similar seasonal insect communities have been identified in other studies using temporal surveys, particularly in Mediterranean climates, exhibiting largely the same pattern — except for one major difference in studies conducted at higher altitudes (Herrera 1988, Petanidou and Ellis 1993, Bosch et al. 1997, Herrera 2018, Morente-López et al. 2018, Aitakka et al. 2024). Anthophilous Coleoptera are mostly and strongly active in spring and summer in Mediterranean Region and their diversity decreases with (increasing) latitudes, while the greatest diversity of Hymenoptera can be found in Mediterranean environments (Herrera 1988, Moore et al. 2018, Ollerton 2021, Maestracci et al. 2024).

This seasonal structure of the anthophilous insect community reflects insect and plant annual phenologies, for example, Hymenoptera were active all year-round, beetles mostly in spring and summer and hoverflies mostly in autumn-winter. The flowering species changed also seasonally as illustrated on the site of Loretto (Fig. 7). In winter-autumn, three main angiosperm families were flowering: the Asteraceae (Dittrichia viscosa, for example), the Apiaceae (Foeniculum vulgare) and the Brassicaceae (Raphanus raphanistrum). In spring, the Asteraceae were the dominant flowering family totalling 41% of visits particularly on Urospermum dalechampii, other families being the Brassicaceae, the Apiaceae and the Cistaceae to a lesser extent. Finally in summer, the two main flowering plant families were the Apiaceae (Daucus carota and Foeniculum vulgare) and the Asteraceae (Carlina corymbosa).

Figure 7.  

Floral composition in November, April and July for the Loretto site illustrating the habitat dynamism.

Acknowledgements

Author contributions

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