Despite few collection sites being recorded for this species, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Aphonopelma pallidum is endemic to Mexico and mostly restricted to the highlands of central and southern Chihuahua State (Pickard-Cambridge 1897, Smith 1995, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018), with the known range predominantly in the foothills around Chihuahua City. However, there is a small population in the Mapimi Basin in north central Durango State (unpublished data) and the SDMs further extend its potential range to surrounding areas.

The AOO of this species, especially around Chihuahua city, is inferred to be declining due to the expansion of urban areas.

Given the large range, the number of locations is much above any thresholds.

The population of this species, especially around Chihuahua City, is inferred to be declining due to the expansion of urban areas, causing a decline in AOO.

The population of this species, especially around Chihuahua City, is inferred to be declining due to the expansion of urban areas, causing a decline in AOO.

To our knowledge, the species is not subject to severe fragmentation.

Aphonopelma pallidum inhabits shrubby habitat, with lechuguilla, yucca and creosote shrub with a higher grass ratio than other warm regions to the north and northwest (Smith 1995). The edges of farmland with limited disturbance could provide a good stable habitat for this species, but we lack systematic studies to support this. It can also be found at the fringes of the urban environment but probably just isolated wandering individuals.

The habitat of this species, especially around Chihuahua City, is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to the expansion of urban areas.

Aphonopelma pallidum is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often found inhabiting clearly defined burrows (hence considered an obligate burrow user). The burrows can be found amongst bushes where they are sheltered from weather conditions and hidden from potential predators, although they can also be found in open areas such as open hillsides. Burrows will typically have a layer of silk around the entrance and can be sealed further with a thin layer of silk across the diameter during daylight that may deter predators (e.g. ants, wasps etc.) and/or help maintain humidity inside the retreat. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. Males are seen in the wild during late July to late October (iNaturalist 2018), indicating this as the mating season. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will likely produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) late in the year with young dispersing about a month or two later, but these aspects of reproduction are not yet clearly known in this species.

The Aphonopelma pallidum subpopulation around Chihuahua City is declining due to encroachment by urban development. They are generally deliberately killed when found (especially wandering mature males) or inadvertently crushed by machines during development of land for construction.

The species is present at least in the Cumbres de Majalca National Park. As the subpopulation of A. pallidum around Chihuahua city is declining due to expanding urbanisation, it is necessary to protect remaining natural areas where this species is still found, as well as promoting connectivity between them. Adding to this, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019).

Aphonopelma pallidum is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus the international trade of this species is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). This species belonged to Brachypelma when the genus was included in the CITES Appendix II and remained listed on it despite being posteriorly transferred to another genus (CITES 2019). However, it is not in the international legal trade at least during 2006-2016 (Cooper et al. 2019) and also probably not in the illegal pet trade. During the 1990s when specimens traded under this name were identified taxonomically, they were found to be B. verdezi and A. pallidum has become absent from the market ever since.

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma albiceps can be found in southern Mexico State, Morelos State, northern and eastern region of Guerrero State (to Chilpancingo area) and western Puebla State (Pickard-Cambridge 1897, Smith 1995, Locht et al. 1999, Estrada-Alvarez 2014, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data). Given current data, there is a possibility to find some subpopulations in Michoacán State. Brachypelma albiceps is sympatric in Guerrero State with other Brachypelma species such as B. auratum (at the westernmost known extent of B. albiceps) and B. verdezi (at the southernmost known limits of B. albiceps).

Deforestation due to human activities, such as urbanisation, agricultural activities and roads, is causing a decline in EOO. The overharvesting of natural subpopulations to meet the illegal trade can also be causing a decline in EOO if some of the marginal subpopulations are lost.

Deforestation due to human activities, such as urbanisation, agricultural activities and roads is causing a decline in AOO. The overharvesting of natural subpopulations to meet the illegal pet trade may also be causing a decline in AOO if some of these subpopulations are lost.

Given the large range, the number of locations is much above that of any category thresholds.

The population size is declining due to decrease in AOO and quality of the habitat. Many subpopulations are also being depleted by smugglers to meet the illegal pet trade.

Despite the population size being unknown, it is possible to infer its decline since both the AOO and EOO are decreasing, affecting many subpopulations. The overharvesting to meet the illegal trade is also a reason for the population decline in some places of Morelos and Puebla States.

Deforestation due to human activities, such as urbanisation, agricultural activities and roads, is possibly leading to a decline in the number of subpopulations. The overharvesting of natural subpopulations to meet the illegal pet trade can also be causing some of these to be lost.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 92.48% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma albiceps primarily inhabits the Balsas dry forest on the inland side of the Sierra Madre del Sur, an area known as Balsas Depression (Fig. 7). Compared to the outer Pacific coast, the inland thorn and dry deciduous forest habitat of the Balsas is seasonally much hotter and drier for several months of the year (Hijmensen 2018). The species can be found up to an altitude of 2,300 metres (above sea level), but prefers low and medium altitudes with a warmer climate. The species can also be found in pine-oak forests, plus sporadically at lower densities around the edges of cultivated areas or in more xeric natural regions.

Figure 7.  

Brachypelma albiceps habitat, dry forest, near Tepoztlán, Morelos state, Mexico. Photo: Rick C. West.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality (Global Forest Watch 2019), due to human development in particular urbanisation, but also agricultural activities and roads.

Brachypelma albiceps is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, either by altering a small natural cavity or by producing a well-defined burrow-like retreat under debris, rocks or large roots in thickets of subtropical dry forest, pine-oak forest or around edges of cultivated fields. In more open areas, they can often make retreats under the rocks supporting fence posts. Burrows mostly do not have any silk around the entrance, giving no clear indication there is a spider inside. The interior can often be multi-tunnelled between 30-40 centimetres in length and ending in a large chamber (West 2005). These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. Prey remains, discarded around or in burrows, consisted of beetles, millipedes and scorpions. The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Urbanisation and the construction of highways are threats to the species as they cause habitat loss and fragmentation. The northern extent of the range across Morelos State appears to be the most severely impacted by human development, particularly massive expansions of urban areas that exterminate multiple subpopulations. Similarly in this zone, throughout Morelos and into adjacent states, increasing agriculture has converted large areas of their former range into various modified land uses (Global Forest Watch 2019) that are completely unsuitable for the species (Turner et al. 2018). Additionally, harvesting to meet trafficking demand is also of concern and the construction of roads facilitates this illegal activity.

There is a critical lack of environmentally protected lands in Guerrero State, which comprises the majority of the range for Brachypelma albiceps. The few protected areas of this state are either outside the species range or relatively small and/or of unsuitable habitat. The two exceptions may be the Parque Nacional Grutas de Cacahuamilpa and Biosfera Sierra de Huautla where the occurrence of this species remains to be evaluated, but may be ideal for developing conservation initiatives. Further protected areas need to be established, especially in the lowlands. Important additional conservation actions for B. albiceps include establishing management plans and conducting systematic monitoring to inform population recovery and species re-introduction programmes. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with Brachypelma ruhnaui Schmidt, 1997 (CITES 2019), which was posteriorly considered a junior synonym of B. albiceps (Locht et al. 2005). Brachypelma albiceps is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management and Sustainable Exploitation of Wildlife (Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre - UMAs) and sold legally. However, demand in the pet trade still appears to be far higher than numbers currently available through legal trade. As this species is still in the illegal pet trade, both within Mexico and internationally, in comparatively high numbers (relative to legal trade), it is necessary to develop better enforcement actions to curb trafficking, as well as to establish tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Finally, regarding public outreach programmes, this species is being reared in captivity in a Mexican Unit for Management (UMA) that also promotes educational and awareness activities about tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public. Adding to this, B. albiceps can be used as a flagship (perhaps most notably for Morelos State) since it is a very attractive species.

Brachypelma albiceps is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). A legal trade of captive-bred live specimens of B. albiceps is recorded, but an unquantified amount of wild caught animals illegally traded is also known. Data from 2006-2016 indicates that captive-bred juveniles are legally sold from US$20–$60 in Canada and the United States, for US$9 in the EU and for US$4 in Mexico; adult males are sold for approximately US$50 in Canada and adult females approximately for US$250 in the United States and for US$47 in the EU (CEC 2017). Data from the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) showed that, during 2006–2016, about 897 specimens were traded, but this number could be higher, possibly up to 1,219, constituting a common species considering the availability in the international trade (Cooper et al. 2019). All specimens of B. albiceps were traded live and recorded as Aphonopelma albiceps; none of them was declared as wild-caught and most specimens were traded for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019).

Despite few collection sites recorded for this species, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma albopilosum can be found in northern Costa Rica (Valerio 1980) across the northern part of Province of Alajuela and into south-eastern Nicaragua throughout the Department Río San Juan and into Región Autónoma Costa Caribe Sur (Maes et al. 1989, Maes 1992, unpublished data).

A decline in EOO is inferred from habitat loss due to deforestation, urbanisation and agricultural activities.

A decline in AOO is inferred from habitat loss due to deforestation, urbanisation and agricultural activities.

Given the large range, the number of locations is much above that of any category thresholds.

A decline in population size is inferred from possible loss of AOO and EOO due to deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), urbanisation and agricultural activities within its range. Additionally, the population is harvested for the pet trade in Nicaragua.

A decline in population size is inferred from habitat loss due to deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), urbanisation and agricultural activities. Additionally, the population is harvested for the pet trade in Nicaragua.

A decline in number of subpopulations is inferred from habitat loss due to deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), urbanisation and agricultural activities. Additionally, the population is harvested for the pet trade in Nicaragua which might cause some subpopulations to be entirely depleted.

To our knowledge, the species is not subject to severe fragmentation.

Brachypelma albopilosum inhabits moist tropical broadleaf forests of Central America, which have been described as “lush, tall tropical evergreen forest of huge, buttressed canopy trees reaching 40m in height and an extremely rich epiphyte flora” (Hijmensen 2018). The species can be found in an altitudinal range from 0-1770 metres (above sea level), but prefers lower altitudes and a warmer climate. It also presents some tolerance to semi-disturbed areas, for example around edges of small towns.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), mainly due to agricultural activities.

Brachypelma albopilosum is largely a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, sometimes on minor alterations to natural small cavities under debris such as large rocks and tree roots in dense vegetation of moist tropical forest. Others, however, can be found in more clearly defined obligate burrow-like retreats under similar debris or be somewhat adaptable to disturbance and found amongst fallen wood, between rocks or even associated with cavities higher up in trees (Hijmensen 2018). Burrows can have either very little or decent amounts of silk at the burrow entrance to transmit the vibrations of prey movement (if present) and can be sealed with a further thin layer of silk across the diameter during daylight that may deter predators (e.g. ants, wasps etc.) and/or help maintain humidity inside the retreat. The burrows of adults can be steeply inclined by the entrance, but elbowed below to become more horizontal and relatively narrow throughout except for a larger terminal chamber or chambers. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs during the rainy season (June to October) and may continue into the dry season (after December) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the driest spring months with young emerging about two months later. Most young disperse in the late spring (March-April) or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

As for the majority of Brachypelma species, the reduction in habitat size due to human modification of land use is an important threat. Added to this, within just the last 5 years, B. albopilosum has begun to be intensely harvested from the wild in Nicaragua for the pet trade, in large part for registered exports to fill the large demand of major chain pet stores, but also to meet the illegal market.

Important conservation actions include the protection of the natural habitat of B. albopilosum, establishing management plans and conducting systematic monitoring to provide information for population recovery and species re-introduction programmes. Although the real occurrence of this species remains to be evaluated, some protected areas such as Refugio Nacional de La Vida Silvestre Caño Negro, Rincón de la Vieja Natural Park, Guanacaste Natural Park and Tenório Volcano Natural Park are into the probable range of the species and may be suitable for developing conservation initiatives. In order to avoid international trade, incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all the other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019). Breeding and trade are not allowed in Costa Rica, one of the countries where this species occurs and just a single Unit for Management (UMA) in Mexico is currently breeding and legally selling true B. albopilosum in the market. As B. albopilosum is a species with a high demand in the trade and easy to breed, legal breeding should be encouraged, as well as developing a system for certifying the origin of specimens that come from legal breeding programmes. It is necessary to develop better enforcement actions to curb illegal pet trade, as well as establish tax advantages for legal dealers, in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market.

Just a single Unit for Management (UMA) in Mexico is currently breeding and legally selling true B. albopilosum in the market. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). Brachypelma albopilosum is a species with a recent high demand in the pet trade and its population is declining due to relatively intensive extraction for these markets. During 2006-2016, B. albopilosum was considered a very common species in the trade, with between 3,101–4,784 live specimens traded internationally, none of them being declared as wild-caught and most declared as being for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019). Anecdotal information suggests that many of the specimens exported from Nicaragua were adult or subadult specimens, clearly indicating these would be wild-caught animals. These were seen to contain a large percentage of either pregnant females or those in breeding age, the removal of which could severely negatively impact on the ability of affected subpopulations to recover from harvesting.

This species EOO and AOO are unkown.

The species is known from a single male, supposedly from Cuba (Smith 1992). However, the holotype is lost and there is no other information about it.

The single specimen known is the holotype, thus there is no ecological data.

Unknown habitat type.

Brachypelma andrewi is only known from the male holotype and there is no information about its ecology.

Since there is virtually no data about this species, threats are unknown.

Despite the lack of basic data, B. andrewi is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all the other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019).

Brachypelma andrewi is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). According to Cooper et al. (2019), a few specimens of B. andrewi were traded internationally during 2006–2016 from Chile to the USA, all as live specimens for commercial purposes. Since the identity of B. andrewi is unclear, all these specimens traded as B. andrewi presumably were misidentified.

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma auratum is endemic to Mexico and occurs mainly north of the Sierra Madre del Sur and south of the Transverse Neovolcanic Ranges, mainly in the Balsas River Basin, from eastern Jalisco State, through northern and central Michoacán State and north-western Guerrero State, as well as in the south-western Mexico State (Schmidt 1992, Locht et al. 1999, Gabriel and Longhorn 2015, Mendoza and Francke 2017, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data). This species does not occur in coastal lowlands since the mountain range acts as a natural barrier. Brachypelma auratum is sympatric with B. albiceps in Guerrero State, only at the easternmost known extent of B. auratum.

There is a possible loss of EOO due to agriculture activities with consequent deforestation.

There is a possible loss of AOO due to agriculture activities with consequent deforestation.

Unknown number of locations that is nevertheless higher than any thresholds.

Despite a lack of formal data about population reduction, the number of individuals is likely to be declining due to a loss in AOO and EOO owing to increasingly intense agricultural activities, combined with intense harvesting for the illegal pet trade.

Despite a lack of formal data about population reduction, the number of individuals is likely to be declining due to a loss in AOO and EOO owing to increasingly intense agricultural activities, combined with intense harvesting for the illegal pet trade.

The number of subpopulations is expected to be declining given the strong human pressure and severe fragmentation.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 90.5% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma auratum primarily inhabits the Balsas dry forest on the inland side of the Sierra Madre del Sur. Compared to the outer Pacific coast, the inland thorn and dry deciduous forest habitat of the Balsas is seasonally much hotter and drier for several months of the year (Hijmensen 2018). The species can be found in an altitudinal range up to 2000 m a.s.l., but prefers low and medium altitudes and warmer climate.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), in particular through expanding agricultural activities.

Brachypelma auratum is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often only minor alterations being made to natural small cavities under debris, such as large rocks and tree roots in thorny brush and subtropical dry forest. Juveniles are often instead found in scrapes under stones (see also Hijmensen 2018). Burrows mostly do not have any silk around the entrance, giving no clear indication there is a spider inside and can be rather horizontal and broad. These can have the same appearance as those dug by ground squirrels, which have also been seen at some locations alongside B. auratum. It may be speculated that the co-existence of these mammals may be beneficial to B. auratum by providing them with potential new burrows. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

There has been extensive human development of much of the former habitat for this species, including substantial deforestation and degradation of the remaining habitat. This has been mainly through poorly practised non-industrial agricultural activities of small-holders (various cash-crop vegetables, sugar-cane and some fruits) but also by large-scale agricultural production of key crops (particularly corn, avocadoes and sorghum). There is also substantial livestock farming, partly through extensive ranching but also several areas with more intensive and destructive practices (particularly dairy and domestic fowl). This species, along with the others of the red leg complex, are more fragile and does not adapt well or quickly to alterations in the environment caused by human activities (Turner et al. 2018). The major threats are habitat loss due to agriculture and intense trafficking compared to most other species. There is some legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of trafficking of live animals, although likely to frequently be of significant harm to wild populations. Roads facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations and also are a source per se of habitat degradation. The high demand by the pet market can be considered as a significant threat since the legally regulated captivity production is comparably low. Illegal specimens have been regularly extracted and sold in several local Mexican markets as B. smithi, undercutting potential legal and sustainable trade of both species.

Important conservation actions include protecting the natural habitat of B. auratum, establishing management plans and conducting systematic monitoring to provide information for population recovery and species reintroduction programmes. Although the real occurrence of this species remains to be evaluated, a protected area called Zicuirán Infiernillo Biosphere Reserve is inside the range of the species and may be suitable for developing conservation initiatives. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is listed on CITES Appendix II along with all the other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019). Brachypelma auratum is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. However, there is still a dominant illegal pet trade of this species. Thus, the government of Mexico should collaborate with Mexican tarantula breeders to develop a system for certifying the origin of specimens used in breeding programmes of the Units for Management and increase surveillance and control of specimens collected and traded. Tax advantages for legal dealers would make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Currently, this species is being reared in captivity in a Mexican Unit for Management that also promotes educational and awareness activities regarding tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public.

Brachypelma auratum is being reared in captivity in Mexican Unit for Management (UMA) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). However, there is relatively intense trafficking of this species. The high demand on the pet market can be considered as an important threat since the legal captive production is lower than demand. Captive-bred juveniles are sold for approximately US$25–$125 in Canada and the United States, for US$10 in Mexico and for US$4 in the EU; adult females are sold at approximately US$400 in Canada and US$54 in the EU (CEC 2017). Traders offer money for local people to collect B. auratum specimens and thus it is the most illegally traded species in Mexico, being regularly sold in markets of Mexico City (CEC 2017). It is also one of the most requested species internationally, for example in European and USA pet markets. As the species is also reared outside Mexico (mainly in Germany), the Mexican number of produced and exported specimens do not reflect the real number of specimens in the trade (CEC 2017). Between 1,008–1,059 live specimens of B. auratum were traded internationally during 2006–2016, none declared as wild-caught and mainly traded for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019). However, more importantly, regarding illegal pet trade, the largest part of trafficking specimens can be comprised of mature and even pregnant adult females, which may produce a far higher number of young in captivity which are then sold for additional profit, rather than supporting recovery of natural populations.

This species EOO and AOO are unknown.

This species is known from a single female, described in 1917 and reportedly from the Dry Tortugas islands, Florida, USA (Chamberlin 1917). To date, no further specimens have been found from this area. Furthermore, Dry Tortugas are outside the range of all known Brachypelma species. The type locality, as the species itself, is considered dubious.

No population information is available.

Brachypelma aureoceps is from an unknown habitat. The single specimen known is the holotype, thus there are no population and ecological data. Adding to this, the type locality is Dry Tortugas (Chamberlin 1917), that is outside the range of all known Brachypelma species, making any assumptions about habitat type dubious.

Brachypelma aureoceps are only known from the female holotype and there is no information about its ecology.

There is no research in basic ecological features, so it is not possible to identify threats to this species.

No conservation actions can be suggested before basic taxonomic and ecological research is done. Despite the current available data being scarce, this species is listed on CITES Appendix II along with all the other Brachypelma species (CITES 2019).

This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus is protected by an international agreement (CITES 2019) and just a single specimen of B. aureoceps was reportedly internationally traded during 2006–2016.

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma baumgarteni is endemic to Mexico and found in the coastal region of the Sierra Madre del Sur, west of the Balsas River Basin, in south-eastern Michoacán State (Smith 1993, Smith 1995, CEC 2017, Mendoza and Francke 2017, iNaturalist 2018 unpublished data). It is sympatric with B. hamorii in the north-western part of Michoacán State.

Human pressure, such as urbanisation and agriculture, are affecting the extent of occurrence, as the species seems to be dependent on well-preserved forests.

Human pressure, such as urbanisation and agriculture are affecting the area of occupancy, as the species seems to be dependent on well-preserved forests.

Derived from the approximate number of human populations above 100 inhabitants needed to cover the entire range of the species. We assume each locality covers a mean radius of 2.5 km.

We assume the number of locations to be decreasing, given the generalised loss of subpopulations of this species.

Despite the population size being unknown, it is possible to infer its decline since both the AOO and the quality of habitat are decreasing (Global Forest Watch 2019). There is also increasing harvesting pressure on the few subpopulations remaining. Human pressure, such as changing land use through urbanisation and agriculture, are the main causes of the inferred decline since the species seems to be forest-dependent and does not appear to adapt well to disturbed habitats. In addition, some subpopulations are known to have been devastated by hurricanes. Since it is a desirable species in the pet trade and legal breeding in captivity is too low to meet the demands, harvesting pressure on wild populations is increasing. Finally, like other Brachypelma species which occur in ranges around the north-south coastal Pacific highway, many males of B. baumgarteni are run over while crossing roads during the mating season.

Despite the population size being unknown, it is possible to infer its decline since AOO, EOO and the quality of habitat are decreasing (Global Forest Watch 2019). There is also increasing harvesting pressure on the few subpopulations remaining. Human pressure, such as changing land use through urbanisation and agriculture, are the main causes of the inferred decline since the species seems to be forest-dependent and does not appear to adapt well to disturbed habitats. In addition, some subpopulations are known to have been devastated by hurricanes. Since it is a desirable species in the pet trade and legal breeding in captivity is too low to meet the demands, harvesting pressure on wild populations is increasing and is facilitated by construction of roads. Finally, like other Brachypelma species which occur in ranges around the north-south coastal Pacific highway, many males of B. baumgarteni are run over while crossing roads during the mating season.

Subpopulations are expected to be declining given the strong human pressure and severe fragmentation.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 84.5% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma baumgarteni inhabits the subtropical dry forest in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur mountains, primarily in the lowlands near the Pacific coast. This species appears to prefer shady forested areas and healthy populations are not found outside this type of habitat. However, it has been previously reported that burrows can be found on grass hillsides and are approximately 30-40 cm deep (Smith 1995), which can be the case, although more recent data indicates this appears to be a rather unfavourable habitat.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to expansion of urbanisation and agriculture, both of which appear as important factors massively reducing the remaining habitat of this species, which does not adapt well to disturbance (appearing to be a forest-specialist). Large areas of forest have already been cleared in this zone, to which the species does not adapt. The construction and expansion of roads is also destroying habitat and for the remaining subpopulations adjacent to them, the major pacific transit routes in this region provide both a barrier to dispersal and cause of mortality as males, in particular, appear to be often run over by traffic. Natural phenomena, such as hurricanes, have also likely caused a decrease in the quality of its coastal habitat.

Brachypelma baumgarteni is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often with only minor alterations to natural small cavities under debris, such as large rocks and tree roots in dense vegetation of dry forests. These can be found on both sloped and level ground. Burrows mostly do not have any silk around the entrance, giving no clear indication there is a spider inside. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later. Most young disperse in the late spring or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Until five years ago, B. baumgarteni was commonly found in the wild. However, about 3 years ago, specimens became difficult to find in the places they used to live. Since B. baumgarteni seems to be forest-dependent, human pressure, such as urbanisation and agriculture, could be the main cause of the species disappearance, but local information indicates that some subpopulations were devastated by hurricanes. Along with the others of the red leg complex, this species is more fragile and does not adapt well or quickly to alterations in the environment caused by human activities (Turner et al. 2018). Adding to this, red leg species are more popular as pets than the red abdomen ones. As breeding in captivity is too low to meet the market demands and because there has been a recent rise in this number, the harvesting pressure on wild populations is increasing. Roads facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations and also are a source per se of habitat degradation. Adding to this, likewise the other Brachypelma species that occur along the north-south coastal Pacific highway, males of B. baumgarteni are killed by cars while crossing roads during the mating season.

Important conservation actions include protecting the natural habitat of Brachypelma baumgarteni, establishing management plans and conducting systematic monitoring to provide information for population recovery and species reintroduction programmes. As there is no official protected area in its range of occurrence, it is highly recommended to establish one in north Michoacán State in order to help in conservation, recovery and protection, not only of B. baumgarteni, but of B. hamorii as well, since they are sympatric in that area. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II along with all the other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019). Brachypelma baumgarteni is being reared in captivity in a single Mexican Unit for Management (UMA) and sold legally. However, there is still a dominant illegal pet trade of this species. Thus, the government of Mexico should collaborate with Mexican tarantula breeders to develop a system for certifying the origin of specimens used in the breeding programmes of Unit for Management and increase surveillance and control of specimens collected and traded. Tax advantages for legal dealers would make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Captive breeding and specimens re-introductions into the wild, such as those being planned by Aracneé Unit for Management, should also be encouraged by authorities.

Brachypelma baumgarteni is being reared in captivity in a single Unit for Management (UMA) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). This species is being reared in captivity in a single Unit for Management (UMA) and sold legally. Between 2006-2016, about 960–1,108 B. baumgarteni specimens were traded internationally and it is considered a common species in the market (Cooper et al. 2019). All B. baumgarteni in trade were live specimens and none was declared as wild-caught, mostly being traded for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019).

Despite few collection sites recorded for this species, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma boehmei is endemic to Mexico and can be found in a small coastal region of the Sierra Madre del Sur, east of the Balsas River Basin in western Guerrero State (Schmidt and Klaas 1993, Mendoza and Francke 2017, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data). The western border of distribution is the wide Balsas river. This species follows the Pacific coast until areas where Brachypelma smithi occurs. In the North, the high Sierra Madre del Sur mountain range separates Brachypelma boehmei from Brachypelma auratum further inland (Hijmensen 2018).

Human pressure, such as urbanisation and agriculture, are affecting the extent of occurrence, as the species seems to be dependent on well-preserved forests.

Human pressure, such as urbanisation and agriculture, are affecting the area of occupancy, as the species seems to be dependent on well-preserved forests.

Derived from the approximate number of human populations above 100 inhabitants needed to cover the entire range of the species. We assume each locality covers a mean radius of 2.5 km.

We assume the number of locations to be decreasing, given the generalised loss of subpopulations of this species. Experts attending the Tarantula Trinational Trade and Enforcement Workshop (Jalisco, México, 2018), identified smuggling as a continuous threat over this species range. Based on their experience and field observations, some smugglers travel from 1 to 5 km from their towns in order to catch this species in the wild for the black market. Taking into consideration this fact, we mapped and quantified the number of villages within tarantula’s distribution using GIS, a database of Mexican villages (CONABIO 2014) and a buffer area of 2.5 km around villages. Considering that agglomerations of villages are acting as single threats (because contiguous urban areas have no physical barriers between them), the number of locations for this species is 14.

Despite the population size being unknown, it is possible to infer its decline since the AOO (Global Forest Watch 2019), EOO and the quality of habitat are decreasing. There is also increasing harvesting pressure to the few subpopulations remaining. Human pressure, such as changing land use through urbanisation and agriculture, are the main causes of the inferred decline since the species seems to be forest-dependent and does not appear to adapt well to disturbed habitats. In addition, some subpopulations are known to have been devastated by hurricanes. Since it is a desirable species in the pet trade and legal breeding in captivity is too low to meet demands, illegal collection of wild specimens is increasing, the activity being facilitated by road constructions. Finally, like other Brachypelma species which occur in ranges around the north-south coastal Pacific highway, many males of B. boehmei are run over while crossing roads during the mating season.

Despite the population size being unknown, it is possible to infer its decline since both the AOO and the quality of habitat are decreasing (Global Forest Watch 2019). There is also increasing harvesting pressure to the few subpopulations remaining. Human pressure, such as changing land use through urbanisation and agriculture, are the main causes of the inferred decline since the species seems to be forest-dependent and does not appear to adapt well to disturbed habitats. In addition, some subpopulations are known to have been devastated by hurricanes. Since it is a desirable species in the pet trade and legal breeding in captivity is too low to meet the demands, harvesting pressure on wild populations is increasing. Finally, like other Brachypelma species which occur in ranges around the north-south coastal Pacific highway, many males of B. boehmei are run over while crossing roads during the mating season.

Subpopulations are expected to be declining given the strong human pressure and severe fragmentation.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 81.01% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma boehmei inhabits the subtropical dry forest (xeric area with thorn forest) in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur mountains, primarily in the lowlands near the Pacific coast. This species appears to prefer shady forested areas and healthy populations are not found outside this type of habitat.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to expansion of urbanisation and agriculture, both of which appear as important factors reducing remaining habitat of this species, which does not adapt well to disturbance (appearing to be a forest-specialist). The construction and expansion of roads are also destroying habitat and for remaining subpopulations adjacent them, the major pacific transit routes in this region provide both a barrier to dispersal and a cause of mortality as males, in particular, appear to often be run over by traffic. Adding to this, the construction of roads also facilitates the access of poachers to some areas, leading to a declining of wild populations. Natural phenomena, such as hurricanes, have also likely caused a decrease in the quality of its coastal habitat.

Brachypelma boehmei is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often only making minor alterations to natural small cavities under debris, such as large rocks and tree roots in dense vegetation of dry forests and thorny brush. They can be found on both sloped and level ground. Burrows mostly do not have any silk around the entrance, giving no clear indication that there is a spider inside. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. Prey remains, found in burrows, have consisted mostly of beetles and millipedes. (West 2005; pers. obs.). Juvenile specimens were additionally found under fallen rotting wood lying on the ground. One female specimen was found cohabiting with a 30 centimetres long Balsas ground snake (Sonora michoacanensis Duges, 1884). The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Red leg species are more popular as pets than the red abdomen ones. There is a legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of trafficking of live animals. Urbanisation and agricultural impacts also threaten this species, since they cause a decline in area and quality of habitat, as well as leading to severe fragmentation of the population of B. boehmei. This species, along with the others of the red leg complex, are more fragile and do not adapt well or quickly to alterations in the environment caused by human activities (Turner et al. 2018). Local information indicates that some subpopulations were devastated by hurricanes. Vehicular traffic on highways can also be considered a threat to B. boehmei males, since similar to the other Brachypelma species that occur along the north-south coastal Pacific highway, they are run over by cars while crossing roads during mating season. Adding to this, roads facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations and also are a source per se of habitat degradation.

As there is no official protected area on the range of B. boehmei, the creation of a conservation unit in the north part of Guerrero State would be an effective action to preserve subpopulations of B. boehmei together with B. smithi. It is also necessary to establish management plans and conduct systematic monitoring to provide information for population recovery and to develop more programmes of species re-introduction, such as the one that is being outlined by a Mexican Unit for Management (UMA). In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all the other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019). This species is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Managements (UMAs) and sold legally. However, as B. boehmei is part of the illegal pet trade, it is necessary to develop better enforcement actions to curb it, as well as to establish tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Currently, this species is being reared in captivity in a Mexican Unit for Management (UMA) that also promotes educational and awareness activities regarding tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public. Adding to this, B. boehmei could be used as a flagship species to motivate public involvement in tarantula conservational efforts in the Pacific coastal area since it is a very attractive species.

Brachypelma boehmei is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMA) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). There is legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of trafficking of live animals, including wild-caught gravid females. These are occasionally bred in Europe, but available numbers do not appear to satisfy demand. Stocks for some Mexican breeders came from a German seizure and were repatriated in 2005 (CEC 2017). Captive-bred juveniles are sold for approximately US$30–$45 in Canada and the United States, for US$10 in Mexico and for US$8 in the EU; adult males are sold for US$90 in the United States and adult females for approximately US$100–$250 in Canada and the United States and for US$67 in the EU (CEC 2017). It is considered a very common species in the international trade since between 7,810–10,021 specimens of B. boehmei were traded during 2006–2016, all as live specimens for commercial purposes, none declared as wild-caught (Cooper et al. 2019).

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma emilia is endemic to Mexico and occurs on the coastal plain, west of the Sierra Madre Occidental, from southern Sonora State, in Sinaloa State, south-western Nayarit State and inland to western Durango State (White 1856, Pickard-Cambridge 1897, Smith 1986, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018 unpublished data). Recently a small population of B. klaasi was found in Nayarit, resulting in sympatry with B. emilia in this area. Considering the range of all Brachypelma species, B. emilia has the most northern range (Hijmensen 2018), not reaching the north-western part of Jalisco.

The species habitat is being lost due to urbanisation, possibly affecting the EOO.

The species habitat is being lost due to urbanisation, affecting the AOO.

Given the large range, the number of locations is much above that of any category thresholds.

A decline in population size is inferred since it is being overharvested for trade and also subject to decline in AOO and EOO quality of habitat due to human activities, such as urbanisation.

Unknown population size. A decline in population size is inferred since it is being overharvested for trade and also subject to decline in AOO and EOO due to human activities, such as urbanisation.

A decline in number of subpopulations is inferred since it is being overharvested for trade and also subject to decline in AOO and quality of habitat due to human activities, such as urbanisation.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 83.29% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma emilia inhabits the semi-arid lowlands and the deciduous dry forest slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains (West 2005). It can also sometimes be found in more human disturbed areas such as avocado groves and edges of pastures and croplands of maize, particularly under large piles of soil and rocks, even occasionally, for example, on the sides of roads.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to human activity, especially on more lowland coastal areas. The development of roads are one of the main threats to this species since it occurs within many regions of intense traffic and males are frequently found run over on the highways.

Brachypelma emilia is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often clearly defined obligate burrow-like retreats under debris, such as large rocks and tree roots in subtropical dry forest and occasionally in moderately disturbed areas on either level ground or sloped ground. Burrows can sometimes be found in avocado groves, edges of pastures and maize croplands or amongst large piles of soil and rocks with some vegetation cover on the sides of roads (West 2005, Hijmensen 2018). Some can be also found very close to houses and other human structures (West 2005). Burrows mostly do not have any silk around the entrance, giving no clear indication that there is a spider inside (West 2005). The interior can often be multi-tunnelled between 20-100 centimetres in length and ending in a large chamber. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. One female B. emilia from the southernmost part of the range in Nayarit State was observed to catch and start eating an adult lizard Ameiva undulata (Wiegmann, 1834). The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

The major threat to B. emilia is habitat loss, especially in coastal areas, due to human construction. This species, along with the others of the red leg complex, are more fragile and do not adapt well or quickly to alterations on the environment caused by human activities (Turner et al. 2018). Roads are also relevant threats to this species since B. emilia occurs near many roads with intense traffic and males are frequently found run over on them during the mating season. Finally, considering that the red leg species are more popular as pets than the red abdomen ones, illegal harvest and trade are also important factors across its range and it is also facilitated by construction of roads since they make the access to wild populations easier.

The Pacific coast of Mexico is one of the most human-disturbed areas of the country and encompasses several different species of Brachypelma, including B. emilia. Thus it is a priority area regarding conservation planning and actions for the genus. Although the real occurrence of this species remains to be evaluated, some protected areas, such as Sierra de Vallejo State Biosphere Reserve and Sierra de Álamos Natural Protection Area, are inside the range of the species and may be suitable for developing conservation initiatives. Systematic monitoring and re-introduction of specimens in depleted areas should be undertaken, especially around Jalisco, where B. emilia has been harvested by local people in large numbers. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019). Brachypelma emilia is already being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. However, better enforcement actions to curb trafficking are necessary, as well as to establish tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Furthermore, the government of Mexico could collaborate with Mexican tarantula breeders to develop a system for certifying the origin of specimens used in the breeding programmes of UMAs. Currently, this species is being reared in captivity in a UMA that also promotes educational and awareness activities regarding tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public.

Brachypelma emilia is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). There is a legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of trafficking of live animals. Specimens are known to be collected at least around Jalisco region by local people. Captive-bred juveniles are sold for approximately US$30–$35 in Canada and the United States, for US$10 in Mexico and for US$13 in the EU; adult females are sold for approximately US$300 in the United States and for US$40 in the EU (CEC 2017). This species, along with B. auratum, are replacing B. smithi in the market, thus it is common to find it in the black market. Specimens of 5 cm are the most common size sold and adults are not commonly traded. This species is considered very common in the international trade since between 6,133–7,496 B. emilia were traded internationally during 2006–2016, all as live specimens and none declared as wild-caught, mostly being traded for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019).

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma epicureanum is endemic to Mexico and occurs in Yucatán State and the north half of Quintana Roo State (Chamberlin 1925, Arisqueta-Chablé et al. 2009, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, Hijmensen 2018, unpublished data)

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense urbanisation and touristic activities on the coastal area of Quintana Roo State have likely led to the extinction of some subpopulations in the region, causing a reduction in EOO. Many subpopulations have also recently been negatively affected by more frequent rising water (flooding) and hurricanes. The area where this species occurs is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense urbanisation and touristic activities on the coastal area of Quintana Roo State have likely led to the extinction of some subpopulations in the region, causing a reduction in AOO. Many subpopulations have also recently been negatively affected by more frequent rising water (flooding) and hurricanes. The area where this species occurs is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

The number of locations is far above any thresholds.

Inferred from a decrease in the number of subpopulations.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense urbanisation and touristic activities on the coastal area of Quintana Roo State have likely led to the extinction of some subpopulations in the region, causing a reduction in AOO, EOO and, consequently, population size. Harvesting adds to this reduction, since there is an unknown amount of trafficking of wild-caught animals. Many subpopulations have also recently been negatively affected by loss of quality of habitat due to more frequent rising water (flooding) and hurricanes. The area where this species occurs is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense urbanisation and touristic activities on the coastal area of Quintana Roo State have likely led to the extinction of some subpopulations in the region, causing a reduction in AOO and, consequently, population size. Harvesting adds to this reduction, since there is an unknown amount of trafficking of wild-caught animals. Many subpopulations have also recently been negatively affected by more frequent rising water (flooding) and hurricanes. The area where this species occurs is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense urbanisation and touristic activities on the coastal area of Quintana Roo State have likely led to the extinction of some subpopulations in the region. Many subpopulations have also recently been negatively affected by more frequent rising water (flooding) and hurricanes. The area, where this species occurs, is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 71.06% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma epicureanum inhabits the Yucatán dry forest (Hijmensen 2018), which consists of lower thorn brush vegetation with an upper canopy of deciduous trees and some palms. The species also can adapt to some slightly modified habitats disturbed by human activities. The area, where this species occurs, is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to huge human disturbance (urbanisation and tourism), reducing much of the natural habitat. Many subpopulations have been negatively affected both by rising water (flooding) and hurricanes. The area, where this species occurs, is being used intensively for agriculture. Farmers regularly burn their corn fields to make the land fertile again (Hijmensen 2018), an act which can affect the subpopulations.

Brachypelma epicureanum is a fossorial species that constructs or modifies burrows, often clearly defined obligate burrow-like retreat under debris, such as large rocks and tree roots in subtropical dry forest. The burrows typically slope at a 45-degree angle for about 30 centimetres, ending in a chamber (Hijmensen 2018). Burrows will typically have a layer of silk around the entrance and can be sealed with a further thin layer of silk across the diameter during daylight that may deter predators (e.g. ants, wasps etc.) and/or help maintain humidity inside the retreat. Studies on this species in its natural habitat have identified that, unlike the superficially similar B. vagans, B. epicureanum can be uncommon, which can indicate that it is a demographically rare species (Arisqueta-Chablé et al. 2009). These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs towards the end of the year (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The peak has been recorded as being around October, during the rainy season, as most adult males were collected in the field during this period (Arisqueta-Chablé et al. 2009). The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or early summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense urbanisation and consequently deforestation on the coastal area of Quintana Roo State in the last years (Global Forest Watch 2019) have likely led to the extinction of some subpopulations in the region, causing a reduction in EOO, AOO and consequently population size. The strong touristic activity in all Yucatán Peninsula is also negatively affecting subpopulations of B. epicureanum. Harvesting adds to this reduction, since there is an unknown amount of trafficking of wild-caught animals. Roads facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations and are also a source per se of habitat degradation. Many subpopulations have also recently been negatively affected both by natural phenomena, such as rising water (flooding) and hurricanes or by human interferences, such as fire on crops (Hijmensen 2018).

This species occurs in the Biosphere Reserve of Celestun, National Park of Ría Lagartos, National Park San Felipe and Ecological Reserves of Cuxtal and Sian Kaan, so some subpopulations are under ecological protection. The northern section of the species distribution, in particular, is the one that presents greater risk of survival as it is affected by increasing frequency of flooding and hurricanes, deserving special attention regarding conservation actions. As B. epicureanum occurs in an area with intense touristic activities (the type locality, for example, is the very famous archaeological site of Chichén Itza), management and species recovery plans are needed. It would be interesting to take advantage of the fact that the species occurs in a highly touristic area to promote educational activities to the visitors in order to help in-situ conservation and to curb trafficking as well. The species can also be used as a flagship for motivating conservational efforts in Yucatán peninsula. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all other Brachypelma species (CITES 2019). Brachypelma epicureanum is being reared in captivity in some Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. Although not common in the trade, this species is traded in both the Mexican and international pet market. Thus, it is necessary to develop better enforcement actions to combat illegal pet trade, as well as establish tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Currently, this species is being reared in captivity in a UMA that also promotes educational and awareness activities regarding tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public.

Brachypelma epicureanum is being reared in captivity in some Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). Brachypelma epicureanum is not common in the pet trade within Mexico and only in relatively small numbers in the international pet trade. Compared with other Brachypelma species, the trade of B. epicureanum is not intense, consisting of just 52 declared specimens traded internationally during 2006–2016 for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019).

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma hamorii is endemic to Mexico and occurs across much of the small Colima State and in the north-western coast of Michoacán State, plus into fringes of southern Jalisco State (Tesmoingt et al. 1997, Mendoza and Francke 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data). Brachypelma hamorii occurs in the lowland coastal zone, but ranges slightly further inland than neighbouring species. It is sympatric with B. baumgarteni in the north-western part of Michoacán State and with subpopulations of B. klaasi in the north-western limits of Colima State.

A decrease in EOO is inferred since there is habitat loss due to human activities, such as urbanisation, agriculture and roads.

A decrease in EOO is inferred since there is habitat loss due to human activities, such as urbanisation, agriculture and roads.

The number of locations far exceeds any thresholds.

Inferred from the decrease in the number of subpopulations.

A decline in population size is inferred since there is a decrease in AOO and quality of habitat due to human activity, such as urbanisation, agricultural activities and roads. It has also been intensively collected for the pet trade, likely leading to the extinction of some subpopulations.

Habitat loss due to human activity (urbanisation, agricultural activities) is leading to decline in the population throughout Colima State in Mexico due to major recent expansion of human development, especially in low-lying coastal areas. The natural habitat of B. hamorii is subdivided by roads such as Federal Highway 200, an important road that connects several large cities along the Pacific coast of Mexico and which, combined with other roads, appears to be both a significant set of barriers to dispersal and a cause of mortality for males during the mating season. Adding to this, the construction of roads also facilitates the access of smugglers to some areas, leading to a declining of wild populations. Additionally, regarding Colima State, a harvesting pressure in populations of this area has been recorded.

A decrease in the number of subpopulations is inferred since there is habitat loss due to human activities, such as urbanisation, agriculture and roads. Harvesting of wild animals is also leading to the disappearance of some subpopulations.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 86.18% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma hamorii inhabits the subtropical dry forest in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur mountains in Mexico, from the lowlands near the Pacific coast into slightly higher elevations further inland. This region is mostly covered by thorn and deciduous secondary forests (Mendoza and Francke 2017). They appear to prefer undisturbed areas shaded by trees or bushes and can favour areas near to seasonal watercourses.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to deforestation caused by urbanisation and agricultural activities. The construction and expansion of roads is also destroying habitat and for remaining subpopulations adjacent to them, the major pacific transit routes in this region provide both a barrier to dispersal and cause of mortality, as males in particular appear to often be run over by traffic.

Brachypelma hamorii is a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often only making minor alteration to natural small cavities under debris such as fallen logs, large rocks and large tree roots amongst thorny brush or tall grass thickets (after Mendoza and Francke 2017) in subtropical dry forest. The burrows have no traces of silk around the entrance (Mendoza and Francke 2017), giving no clear indication that there is a spider inside. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Habitat loss due to human activities, such as urbanisation and agriculture, threaten the species. Many urban areas are rapidly expanding, often related to extensive agriculture through both small-holders and agro-industry, especially fruit growing (particularly lime, avocado, mangoes and melon), plus maize, cocoa, sugar-cane, cotton etc. These are united by a network of roads and rail, linking them to other cities in Mexico and export via the international port of Manzanillo. This species, along with the others of the red leg complex, are more fragile and do not adapt well or quickly to alterations on the environment caused by human activities (Turner et al. 2018). Roads can be a significant threat as both a barrier to dispersal and a cause of mortality, since males are frequently found run over during the mating season. Adding to this, roads facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations and also are a source per se of habitat degradation. In addition, red leg species are more popular as pets than the red abdomen ones. Thus, harvesting pressure on several subpopulations of B. hamorii around Colima can also be considered as a threat to the species, as illegal collection for the pet trade appears to be ongoing.

Although the real occurrence of this species remains to be evaluated, some protected areas such as Volcán Nevado de Colima National Park and Manantlán Biosphere Reserve are inside the range of the species and may be suitable for developing conservation initiatives. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all other Brachypelma species (CITES 2019). Brachypelma hamorii is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. However, an illegal pet trade is likely an ongoing concern since adults of unknown origin have frequently been traded in both Mexican and international markets. A single subpopulation in Colima seems to provide most of the specimens traded, impacted by a high harvesting pressure, thus it requires protection and efforts to repopulate it. Important conservation actions include developing new initiatives to protect the natural habitat of B. hamorii, creating management plans and conducting systematic monitoring to provide information about the recovery of subpopulations, since there are no conservation units in the occurrence area of the species. As this region of the Pacific coast is one of the most populous areas of Mexico with several different species of Brachypelma, it should therefore be a priority area regarding the establishment of new conservation areas. It is also necessary to improve enforcement actions to curb trafficking, as well as establishing tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive than others in the black market. Currently, this species is being reared in captivity in a Mexican Unit for Management (UMA) that also promotes educational and awareness activities regarding tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public.

Brachypelma hamorii is being reared in captivity in Mexican Unit for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus is protected by an international agreement (CITES 2019). No legal trade in specimens of B. hamorii was recorded in the UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database during 2006–2016 (Cooper et al. 2019). However, this should be analysed carefully since the taxonomic review of the genus was not published until 2017 (Mendoza and Francke 2017). As it is known now that the specimens from Colima traded as B. smithi were actually specimens of B. hamorii, the participation of B. hamorii in international trade up to 2017 needs to be reviewed. Currently, an illegal pet trade is being carried out since the presence of adults on the market was detected, which captive breeding cannot account for. It is known that B. hamorii specimens are also traded in the black market, misidentified as B. smithi.

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma kahlenbergi is endemic to Mexico and occurs east of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Veracruz State (Rudloff 2008, CEC 2017) and ranges into eastern San Luis Potosi, Querétaro and Hidalgo States and north-eastern Puebla and Oaxaca States (iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data)

A decline in EOO is inferred from habitat loss due to deforestation for urbanisation, agriculture and roads. Increasing frequency of deleterious natural disaster episodes, such as hurricanes within its range, is also a concern.

A decline in AOO is inferred from habitat loss due to deforestation for urbanisation, agriculture and roads. Increasing frequency of deleterious natural disaster episodes, such as hurricanes within its range, is also a concern.

The number of locations far exceeds any thresholds.

Inferred from decline in number of subpopulations.

A decreasing number of individuals is inferred due to a decrease in AOO, especially due to deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019) since the area where B. kahlenbergi can be found, mainly Veracruz State, is one of the most populous in Mexico, with a significant use for agriculture and cattle raising (SEMARNAT 2012). Adding to this, there is an increase of natural disaster episodes, such as hurricanes and tropical storms and the depletion of many subpopulations by smugglers to meet the illegal pet trade.

The population size of B. kahlenbergi is unknown and there is no systematic research about population trends. However, the area where B. kahlenbergi can be found, mainly Veracruz State, is one of the most populous in Mexico, with a significant use for agriculture and cattle raising (SEMARNAT 2012), which can affect subpopulations of this species. It is known that hurricanes and tropical storms, common along coastal Veracruz State (SEMARNAT 2008), have depleted some subpopulations. Adding to this, overharvesting to meet the illegal pet trade is also affecting subpopulations of B. kahlenbergi.

Decreasing number of subpopulations is inferred due to habitat loss.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 99.45% of the species lives in low quality and fragmented habitat.

Brachypelma kahlenbergi inhabits tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests of the Atlantic lowlands. The species can be found from low altitude, close to sea level, to higher elevations inland. They appear to be relatively tolerant of human-disturbance and can adapt to more open areas around livestock pasture and areas of non-intensive crops (without intense use of chemical pesticides).

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to human development in particular agriculture through both relatively small-scale farming, such as seasonal cash crops (e.g. crops like corn and beans) plus livestock pasture, but also extensive industrial agricultural activities (in particular coffee, vanilla, sugar-cane, rice and citrus fruits), alongside the linked development of urbanisation plus roads and rail.

Brachypelma kahlenbergi is a fossorial species that constructs or modifies burrows, often clearly defined obligate burrow-like retreats under debris such as large rocks and tree roots in subtropical moist lowland forest, as well as scrubland and pasture. The burrows slope steeply for several centimetres, ending in a chamber. Burrows will typically have a layer of silk around the entrance to transmit the vibrations of prey movement and can be sealed with a further thin layer of silk across the diameter during daylight that may deter predators (e.g. ants, wasps etc.) and/or help maintain humidity inside the retreat. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The presence of the frog Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864), living in a same burrow with Brachypelma kahlenbergi, was reported by Hijmensen (2018). The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or early summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense agriculture and related urbanisation and infrastructure are likely posing significant threats. The area where B. kahlenbergi can be found, mainly Veracruz State, is one of the most populous in Mexico, with a significant use for agriculture and cattle raising (SEMARNAT 2012). This occurs both through small-holders (particularly corn and beans) and larger agro-industry (especially coffee, vanilla, sugar-cane, rice and citrus fruits), plus livestock (with cattle ranching predominant). These agricultural activities imply increased urbanisation and are united by a network of roads and rail, linking them both to other cities in Mexico and export via the international port of Veracruz. Roads can also be considered a threat, since they disturb the natural habitat and increase the risk of males being run over during the mating season, as well as facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations. There is a legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of illegal pet trade.

Brachypelma kahlenbergi was recorded in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and in the Biosphere Reserve of Sierra Gorda, but it is likely to occur also in other conservation units in Mexico. Important conservation actions include protecting the natural habitat by creating management plans, conducting systematic monitoring to provide information on the recovery of populations and re-introduce the species in some areas. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all other species of the genus Brachypelma (CITES 2019). Brachypelma kahlenbergi is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. There is legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of illegal pet trade of live animals, which needs to be curbed. It is also necessary to establish tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market.

Brachypelma kahlenbergi is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). A legal trade of captive-bred live specimens is recorded, but also an unknown amount of illegal pet trade of live animals. Captive-bred juveniles are sold for approximately US$65–$80 in Canada and the United States, for US$20 in Mexico and for US$5 in the EU; adult females are sold for approximately US$80 in the EU (CEC 2017). This species does not have a high market demand and most trade is done by specialised dealers. Additionally, B. kahlenbergi has often been misidentified in the pet trade with other species of Brachypelma with red abdomen, such as B. vagans and B. sabulosum. As just 25–35 specimens of B. kahlenbergi were traded internationally during 2006–2016, all alive, for commercial purposes and none declared as wild-caught, it is considered an uncommon species in international trade (Cooper et al. 2019).

A species distribution modelling has been performed to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma klaasi is endemic to Mexico and occurs on the Pacific coastal side of the Sierra Madre Occidental range, in south-western Jalisco State into north-western Colima State where it is sympatric (overlapping in range) with Brachypelma hamorii in a relatively small area (Schmidt and Krause 1994Schmidt and Krause 1994, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data). Most northernmost records extend to south of Puerto Vallarta in Jalisco State, but recently a small population was found in Nayarit (unpublished data), resulting in sympatry with B. emilia. Yáñez and Floater (2000) stated that the species can be found at elevations of 300-1,400 m a.s.l. on the extreme western slopes of Sierra Madre Occidental and some areas on the western limits of the Transverse Volcanic Belt in Jalisco and Nayarit States.

A decline in EOO can be inferred, since there is habitat loss due to human activity, such as urbanisation, livestock and agricultural activities and roads.

There is a decrease in AOO, since there is habitat loss due to human activity, such as urbanisation, livestock and agricultural activities and roads.

Derived from the approximate number of human populations above 100 inhabitants needed to cover the entire range of the species. We assume each locality covers a mean radius of 2.5 km.

A decline in population size is inferred from a possible decline in AOO and a loss of habitat due to human activity, such as urbanisation, livestock and agricultural activities and roads. In recent years, specimens are hard to find in some sites where they used to be abundant. Harvesting to feed the illegal pet trade can also be considered a cause of decline in population size, although typically not as intense as experienced by some other Brachypelma species.

A decline in population size is inferred from a possible decline in AOO and a loss of habitat due to human activities, such as urbanisation, livestock and agricultural activities and roads. In recent years, specimens have been hard to find in some sites where they used to be abundant. Harvesting to feed the illegal pet trade can also be considered a cause of decline in population size, although typically not as intense as experienced by some other Brachypelma species.

A decrease in number of subpopulations of B. klaasi is inferred from a possible decline in AOO, since there is habitat loss due to human activity, such as urbanisation, livestock and agricultural activities and roads. Harvesting of wild animals is also leading to the disappearance of some subpopulations of this species.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 77.05% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma klaasi inhabits the subtropical dry forest in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur mountains, in the coastal Pacific of Mexico. It can be found in thorn forest and dry deciduous forest in coastal lowlands and up into pine-oak forest habitats at higher elevations. The species can be found from a low altitude almost at sea level, above the dunes, up to 1,000 m, at the Sierra El Tuito range.

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due to intense human activities in particular urbanisation and agricultural expansion. At higher altitudes, pines and oak trees are being increasingly felled for timber and the increase in agriculture (in particular corn fields) are increasingly reducing species habitat.

This species, along with Brachypelma vagans, is one of the better-known for its ecological traits amongst Brachypelma species. Brachypelma klaasi are a fossorial species that modifies previously excavated burrows or can excavate their own unaided, often with significant alterations to natural small cavities or more defined burrow-like retreats under debris, such as large rocks and tree roots in dense vegetation of thorn and dry deciduous forest or pine-oak forests. Burrows have been recorded amongst dense thorny thickets, in rotting fallen pine trees and old rotten logged pine stumps or in dense tall grasses (West 2005). It has been suggested that immature spiders transiently exploit various refuges until they find a suitable site for a permanent burrow that they can then inhabit for many years (Yáñez and Floater 2000). The burrow varies in length from 0.15 to 2 m, depending on the site and the age of the spider (Yáñez et al. 1999) and consists of a horizontal tunnel leading from the burrow entrance to a primary chamber where moulting usually takes place and a larger, secondary chamber where the spider rests during the night and where prey is consumed, both connected by an inclined tunnel (Yáñez et al. 1999). The burrows (of older individuals) have no traces of silk at the entrance giving no clear indication that there is a spider inside. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. Known prey items of B. klaasi which have been recorded are large insects, such as Orthoptera and Blattodea, as well as small lizards and frogs (Yáñez 1998). The species is diurnal and is most active in the early morning and early evening (Yáñez and Floater 2000). The mating season occurs during the last part of rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. Adult males of the species do not appear to have fixed home ranges and move frequently in search of females, that remain within or close to their permanent burrow (Yáñez and Floater 2000). The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. After copulation, they produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) containing 400–800 eggs in their burrows in April–May, immediately before the first rains of the season and the spiderlings only emerge in June–July (Yáñez and Floater 2000). The spiderlings disperse in July–August and are prone to predation for other animals such as ants (Yáñez and Floater 2000). Females mature between 7-9 years and live up to 30 years in captivity while males probably mature earlier (between six and eight years) and live four to six months more after maturity (Yáñez et al. 1999).

There are some factors that threaten populations of B. klaasi, especially related to human activities, such as urbanisation and agricultural expansion. This species, along with the others of the red leg complex, are more fragile and do not adapt well or quickly to alterations in the environment caused by human activities (Turner et al. 2018). Vehicular traffic on roads can also be considered as a threat to this species, since male specimens can be hit by cars while dispersing during the mating season. Adding to this, roads facilitate the access of smugglers to wild populations and also are a source per se of habitat degradation. Red leg species are more popular as pets than the red abdomen ones. There is legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of illegal pet trade of live animals, which can also be considered as a threat.

Although some stable populations of this species can be found in Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, important conservation actions include protecting other areas of the natural habitat of B. klaasi, creating management plans and conducting systematic monitoring to provide information about the recovery of populations that are in decline due to human activities. Several studies suggest that mating B. klaasi in captivity is not difficult and the production of egg sacs in the laboratory can be successful (Yáñez et al. 1999). Thus, since captive breeding and re-introduction of B. klaasi is an important means of sustaining natural populations (Yáñez et al. 1999), some efforts for stimulating these activities should be undertaken. In order to avoid international trade incompatible with its survival, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all other Brachypelma species (CITES 2019). Brachypelma klaasi is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. Despite the legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, there is also an unknown amount of trafficking of live animals that demands better border enforcement. Thus it is necessary to develop better enforcement actions to curb trafficking, as well as to establish tax advantages for legal dealers in order to make their prices more competitive with the ones in the black market. Currently, this species is being reared in captivity in a UMA that also promotes educational and awareness activities regarding tarantula spiders aimed at students and the general public.

Brachypelma klaasi is being reared in captivity in Mexican Units for Management (UMAs) and sold legally. This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus is protected by an international agreement (CITES 2019). A legal trade in captive-bred live specimens is recorded, but an unquantified amount of wild-caught animals illegally traded is also known. It seems to be rare, but adults appear at times from unknown sources, increasing demand when available. Captive-bred juveniles are sold for approximately US$70–$75 (up to US$100) in Canada and the United States, for US$14 in Mexico and for US$7 in the EU; adult males are sold for approximately US$33 and adult females for approximately US$80 in the EU (CEC 2017). It has the highest price amongst all Brachypelma species and it is sold very quickly. Brachypelma klaasi is considered a common species in the international trade, since between 492–512 specimens were traded during 2006–2016, all live, none declared as wild-caught and mainly for commercial purposes (Cooper et al. 2019).

This species EOO and AOO are unknown.

Brachypelma sabulosum is only found in north-eastern Chiapas State and north and north-western Guatemala, probably across Petén, most of Alta Verapaz and to the southeast parts of Izabel and southwest to Quiché and Huehuetenango departments (Pickard-Cambridge 1897, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data). Yet, a scarcity of data prevents us from having any confidence in its existing knowledge.

Although AOO is unknown, a decline is inferred, since there is loss of habitat in its range due to high amounts of deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019) caused by human interferences, such as urbanisation and agricultural activities within the range of this species.

Population declining due to an inferred AOO reduction caused by deforestation, especially for agricultural purposes.

Population is declining due to an inferred AOO reduction caused by deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), especially for agricultural purposes.

The number of subpopulations is probably declining due to an inferred AOO reduction caused by deforestation (Global Forest Watch 2019), especially for agricultural purposes.

To our knowledge, the species is not subject to severe fragmentation.

Brachypelma sabulosum inhabits tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests of Guatemala and Mexico, in south-eastern Chiapas State. They appear to be tolerant of human-disturbance and appear to be able to adapt to open areas of pasture or non-intensive crops (without intense use of chemical pesticides).

Brachypelma sabulosum inhabits tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests of Guatemala and Mexico, in south-eastern Chiapas State. They appear to be tolerant of human-disturbance and appear to be able to adapt to open areas of pasture or non-intensive crops (without intense use of chemical pesticides).

Brachypelma sabulosum is a fossorial species that constructs or modifies burrows, often clearly defined obligate burrow-like retreats under debris in particular large rocks in tropical moist forests. The burrows slope steeply for several centimetres, ending in a chamber. Burrows will typically have some silk around the entrance to transmit the vibrations of prey movement and can be sealed further with a thin layer of silk across the diameter during daylight that may deter predators (e.g. ants, wasps etc.) and/or help maintain humidity inside the retreat. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs towards the end of the year (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or early summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

Despite a lack of systematic research, increasingly intense agriculture and related urbanisation and infrastructure are likely posing significant threats. The area where B. sabulosum can be found, mainly Petén department in Guatemala and Chiapas State in Mexico, is experiencing significant deforestation in recent years, coming from a rapidly growing human population along with poorly practised ranching, agricultural activities invading the forest and large amounts of timber extraction (The Nature Conservancy 2018), hence habitat loss due to deforestation can be considered a serious threat. This occurs through both small holders clearing forest for crops (especially corn, beans, potatoes, tomatoes) as well as livestock (with cattle ranching predominant).

Little is known about B. sabulosum. However, it is known that a huge area where the species occurs, the one around Sierra del Lacadón National Park, is suffering significant pressure due to a growing human population along with poorly practised ranching, agricultural activities encroaching on the forest and timber extraction (The Nature Conservancy 2018). The Maya forest, the New World's largest remaining block of tropical rainforest outside of the Amazon basin (The Nature Conservancy 2018), covers most of the poorly known occurrence area of B. sabulosum, but the species has high potential to be found also in large areas to the South of this, outside any protected areas. Thus, conservation actions that integrate both Mayan and non-indigenous communities that live and explore Sierra del Lacandón and intend to improve their economic well-being and at the same time that preserve the Maya Forest, are highly desirable. It is clear that restoration, management and protection of the remaining areas is imperative for conservation, not only of B. sabulosum, but of this unique and rich ecosystem. The species was recorded in Tikal National Park and, despite not being officially detected, it probably occurs at Sierra del Lacadón National Park areas that can be suitable for developing conservation initiatives. Despite little information about the trade and the population trends of B. sabulosum, this species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, along with all other species of the genus (CITES 2019).

This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II and thus its international trade is regulated by an international agreement (CITES 2019). A single live specimen of B. sabulosum was reportedly exported from Germany to Switzerland in 2015 during the period between 2006–2016 (Cooper et al. 2019). The specimen was captive-bred and traded for a circus/travelling exhibition, reported by the exporting country (Germany) but not the importing country (Switzerland) (Cooper et al. 2019). Illegal pet trade of B. sabulosum does not seem to be too common. Advertisements selling B. sabulosum juveniles (25–30 mm in body size) for €25 can be found in web pages, but nothing is known about the legality of their origin.

Despite few collection sites recorded for this species, it was possible to perform species distribution modelling to predict its potential range. See methods for details.

Brachypelma schroederi is endemic to Mexico and occurs in the Central Valley region of Oaxaca State (Rudloff 2003, CEC 2017, iNaturalist 2018, unpublished data).

The EOO is decreasing, since there is habitat loss due to human activities, such as urbanisation and agriculture.

The AOO is decreasing, since there is habitat loss due to human activities, such as urbanisation and agriculture.

Derived from the approximate number of human populations above 100 inhabitants needed to cover the entire range of the species. We assume each locality covers a mean radius of 2.5 km.

We assume the number of locations to be decreasing given the generalised loss of subpopulations of this species.

A decline in population size is inferred through decline in AOO due to human activities, such as urbanisation and agriculture, as well as overharvesting of specimens for the trade.

A decline in population size is inferred through decline in AOO due to human activities, such as urbanisation and agriculture, as well as overharvesting of specimens for the trade.

Subpopulations are expected to be declining given the strong human pressure and severe fragmentation.

Based on the analysis of the relative abundance of each species in low quality habitat (RA_LQH) and the Species Distribution Model, 79.68% of the population should be in subpopulations that are non-viable and without the possibility of rescue effects due to fragmentation.

Brachypelma schroederi inhabits dry deciduous forest and hillside scrub on the lower slopes of the Tlacolula valley (Valles Centrales) in subtropical central Oaxaca, enclosed by the Mixe Mountain Range (Sierra Norte, Sierra Sur etc.) and pine-oak forests at higher elevations (unpublished data).

The habitat of this species is inferred to be declining in area, extent and quality due in particular to an increase in urbanisation, as well as non-industrial agriculture (e.g. corns, beans, sorghum, peanuts), as well as large-scale agricultural production of key crops in both the valley (especially wheat and peanuts) and hillsides (especially agave) which has destroyed the majority of the potential habitat.

Brachypelma schroederi is a fossorial species that constructs or modifies burrows, often clearly defined obligate burrow-like retreats under debris, in particular, large rocks in various subtropical dry forests and scrub. The burrows slope steeply for several centimetres, ending in a chamber. Burrows will typically have some silk around the entrance to transmit the vibrations of prey movement and can be sealed further with a thin layer of silk across the diameter during daylight that may deter predators (e.g. ants, wasps etc.) and/or help maintain humidity inside the retreat. These spiders are nocturnal predators that wait near the entrance of their refuge from dusk and into the night to feed primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods (insects, other arachnids and some myriapods) or even small vertebrates. The mating season occurs during the last part of the rainy and first part of dry seasons (August to January) when mature males wander in the open to search for females. The males are likely most active at night, cooler daylight hours and throughout overcast days. Adult females typically moult once per year, just prior to the onset of the annual male emergence. Females will produce cocoons (large silken egg sacs) during the drier winter months with young emerging about two months later, with most young dispersing in the late spring or early summer, just before the onset of the early summer rains.

There has been extensive human development of much of the former habitat for this species, including substantial deforestation and degradation of the remaining habitat. Urbanisation, livestock farming, as well as non-industrial agriculture and large-scale agricultural production of key crops in both the valley and hillsides, can be considered the major threats because they are the most probable cause of the severe fragmentation of subpopulations. Vehicular traffic on roads also jeopardise subpopulations, since males are killed by cars while crossing them during the mating season. Adding to this, the roads per se cause degradation of the natural habitat, but they also facilitate the access of smugglers to some areas, leading to a declining of wild populations. There is legal trade of captive-bred live specimens, but also an unknown amount of illegal trade of live animals, constituting a threat for subpopulations of B. schroederi. Adding to this, the population is declining due to human occupation of its natural habitat.