Introduction

The Sahul continental shelf comprises Australia and the island of New Guinea, while the Sunda continental shelf comprises mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia) and Indonesia west of Wallace’s Line. Between the Sunda and Sahul shelves lies Wallacea, a biogeographic region composed of a complex conglomerate of continental fragments and island arcs of varied origins (Hall 2012). Wallacea encompasses the Philippines, Timor-Leste, and parts of Indonesia (Fig. 1).

Figure 1.  

Map showing the continental shelf, island area and Australian phytogeographic subregions (Ebach et al. 2015) that species were coded to in the SSCZ vascular plant checklist. MAS, Mainland Asia; Sum, Sumatra; Bor, Borneo; Jav, Java; Phi, Philippines; Sul, Sulawesi; LSI, Lesser Sunda Islands; Mlk, Maluku Islands; NGu, New Guinea; AKP, Kimberley Plateau; AAL, Arnhem Land; ACY, Cape York Peninsula; AAP, Atherton Plateau; AGS, Great Sandy Desert Interzone; ACD, Central Desert; ACQ, Central Queensland; AEQ, Eastern Queensland; AWD, Western Desert; AED, Eastern Desert; ASe, Southeastern; ASw, Southwestern; ASI, Southwest Interzone; AHa, Hampton; ANu, Nullarbor; AEP, Eyre Peninsula; AAd, Adelaide; AVi, Victoria; ATa, Tasmania.

The Sunda and Sahul shelves converged approximately 25 Mya, following the rifting of Sahul from Antarctica approximately 45 Mya, its northward drift, and its contact with Wallacea and Sunda at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary (Hall 2002, Zahirovic et al. 2016). This collision facilitated the exchange of biota that had been evolving in isolation for at least 20 My (Crayn et al. 2015, Sniderman and Jordan 2011, Kooyman et al. 2019). The Sunda-Sahul biotic exchange provides a natural experiment to study evolution and biogeography, and has fascinated scientists since the time of Alfred Wallace (Wallace 1860). However, despite considerable interest, study and speculation on the biogeography of the region, much remains to be understood regarding which taxa were exchanged, when they were exchanged and the processes by which this occurred.

A plethora of terms for areas and the floristic exchange that occurred between them has accumulated due to the longstanding biogeographic interest in the region. Parts of the area of focus have been variously referred to as the ‘Indo-Australian archipelago’ (Lohman et al. 2011), the ‘Southeast Asian-Australian region’ (Metcalfe 2001, Morley 2002), the ‘Malay archipelago’ (Wallace 1860, Hall 2017), ‘Malesia’ (Steenis 1979, Van Welzen et al. 2005Brummitt et al. 2001), ‘Papuasia’ (Brummitt et al. 2001) and ‘Australasia’ (Heads 2014), based on floristic or political boundaries. Richardson et al. 2012 referred to the floristic exchange as the ‘Malesian Floristic Interchange’, while Crayn et al. 2015 named it the ‘Sunda-Sahul Floristic Exchange’. To adequately describe the geological history of the area and the area likely to be affected by the exchange of flora between the Sunda and Sahul shelves, we herein introduce the term “The Sunda-Sahul Convergence Zone” (SSCZ) to describe the area of focus. This area comprises the entire Sahul shelf (Australia and New Guinea), Wallacea (the Moluccas, Sulawesi, the Philippines and the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Sunda shelf (Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and mainland Asia to Myanmar) (Fig. 1). Furthermore, we here adopt the term “the Sunda-Sahul floristic exchange” (Crayn et al. 2015), as it most accurately describes the exchange of flora upon the convergence of the two continental shelves.

The SSCZ is thought to harbour a significant proportion of the world’s biodiversity, yet much of this biodiversity remains to be documented. Four of the world’s ‘biodiversity hotspots’ occur in the SSCZ - the Philippines, Sundaland, Wallacea and Southwest Australia (Myers et al. 2000). The SSCZ also contains the ‘major wilderness area’ of New Guinea—an area thought to have a high degree of endemism and diversity but that is not currently considered to be under threat (Mittermeier et al. 1998). However, despite the clear importance of the region and its biodiversity, its flora has never been documented as a whole.

Checklists for some parts of the SSCZ exist, but their completeness, currency and availability differ. Some are in hard copy form in books or journals (e.g. Soepadmo and Wong 1995Kessler et al. 2002), some are online (e.g. Pelser et al. 2011), and some are unpublished (e.g. Slik 2018). Many are not publicly available or are out of print. The hard copy formats are static and not up-to-date with respect to new taxonomic discoveries or revised taxonomic concepts. The taxonomies used in these lists also often differ, mostly due to their different publication dates, making comparison of taxa between regions difficult.

The flora of the SSCZ must be documented for it to be studied, analysed and conserved. Documentation is also necessary to appreciate the significance of the SSCZ flora on a global scale, and to further our understanding of its ecology and evolution. Therefore, we provide here for the first time a digital, comprehensive, updateable and publicly available dataset of vascular plants for the SSCZ.

Materials and methods

Checklist of the vascular flora of the SSCZ

Analysis

Discussion

Here we present the first comprehensive species checklist of native vascular plants for the Sunda-Sahul Convergence Zone, comprising 60,415 species. An estimated 374,000 vascular plant species are known globally (Christenhusz and Byng 2016); thus, our checklist indicates that the SSCZ harbours at least 16.2% of all known vascular plant species. Considering the land area of the SSCZ (c. 12,215,000 km², c. 8% of the global land area), our estimated diversity for the region is substantially higher than the global average number of species per unit area.

It has long been assumed that the Neotropics are more species-rich than the Southeast Asian tropics. However, our findings suggest that floristic richness in the SSCZ is comparable to that of the Neotropical ecozone (sensu Schultz 2005) which extends from central Mexico to southern Brazil, a latitudinal range similar to that of the SSCZ. Approximately 90,000–110,000 seed plant species are estimated to occur in the Neotropical ecozone (Antonelli and Sanmartín 2011), an average of 0.0062 seed plant species per km². By comparison, the SSCZ has an average of 0.0047 seed plant species per km². The average for the whole SSCZ is lowered by the inclusion of Australia, which mostly comprises savannah and arid biomes known to have relatively low floristic richness. Excluding Australia, the SSCZ has 0.0088 vascular plant species per km², which is slightly higher than the richness of seed plants in the Neotropical ecozone. Similar species richness between the Southeast Asian tropics and Neotropics was also recently reported for tropical tree species by Slik et al. (2015).

The five most species-rich families in the region are Orchidaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae (Fig. 2). The most species-rich genera are Bulbophyllum and Dendrobium (Orchidaceae), Acacia (Fabaceae), and Eucalyptus and Syzygium (Myrtaceae). Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae are some of the most species-rich plant families on Earth, and thus their predominance in the region is expected. The pattern of the most diverse families in the SSCZ is similar to that of the Amazon; however, the Amazon includes a high number of Melastomataceae species, fewer Proteaceae species and Ericaceae species, and the SSCZ has ten times the number of orchid species than the Amazon (Cardoso et al. 2017). Only one genus - Psychotria (Rubiaceae) - exhibits a similarly high diversity in the Amazon and the SSCZ, reflecting the independent evolutionary histories of these tropical floras.

Figure 2.  

25 most species-rich families (A) and genera (B) in the SSCZ

It must be emphasised that this is a working checklist of vascular plants; the aim was to compile current knowledge of floristic distribution across the region in an objective and systematic way, and to publish it in a digital, updateable format. Some inevitable errors in taxonomy and distribution will be present in the dataset, reflective of errors in the taxonomic backbones used to standardise nomenclature across sources. These will be corrected over time through consultation with group experts and other regional flora projects, and updated versions of the checklists will be released. The number of errors is likely to be small and unlikely to invalidate results of analyses based on this checklist, given the size of the dataset and the diversity and reliability of source lists. The dataset also almost certainly under-represents actual floristic diversity in the region. Many areas within the SSCZ are underexplored, and therefore have a biodiversity that is not accurately documented. This is particularly the case in many parts of Indonesia, New Guinea, Cambodia and Vietnam. Additional taxonomic work is urgently needed to fully understand and refine species boundaries in poorly known groups. This is challenging in an area so geographically and politically diverse, and is particularly important given current and emerging threats to the biodiversity of the region (Myers et al. 2000). Given the digital format of this checklist, the checklist is able to be updated as new discoveries are made and taxonomies are revised. It provides a baseline overview of current knowledge of the regional flora for biodiversity research, which can be built on and refined over time.

The checklist is provided as a resource for scientists studying the biodiversity, evolution, biogeography and ecology of this region. Questions generated from this list include the following:

• Which taxa have been exchanged between the Sunda and Sahul shelves?
• Is there a difference between functional traits of plants between different islands, and what could be driving this?
• Where are the most diverse areas that should be considered for conservation priority?
• What are the environmental correlates of variation in floristic composition across the region?

The list of vascular flora of the SSCZ also offers opportunities to build a regional database of plant traits for ecological and evolutionary research. Ultimately, we hope that this checklist will provide a resource to enable researchers to generate and test biogeographic, ecological and evolutionary hypotheses in this globally megadiverse and biogeographically important region.

Acknowledgements

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Supplementary material