Biodiversity Data Journal : Data Paper (Biosciences)
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Data Paper (Biosciences)
Standardised inventories of lepidopterans and odonates from Serra da Estrela Natural Park (Portugal) - setting the scene for mountain biodiversity monitoring
expand article infoMário Boieiro, Sandra Antunes§, Hugo Figueiredo|, Albano Soares§, Ana Lopes, Eva Monteiro§, Patrícia Garcia-Pereira#, Carla Rego#, José Conde|, Paulo A.V. Borges, Artur R.M. Serrano#
‡ Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c)/Azorean Biodiversity Group, CHANGE – Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, Angra do Heroísmo, Azores, Portugal
§ TAGIS - Centro de Conservação das Borboletas de Portugal, Avis, Portugal
| CISE - Centro de Interpretação da Serra da Estrela, Município de Seia, Seia, Portugal
¶ Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
# Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c) & CHANGE – Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
Open Access

Abstract

Background

Mountain insect biodiversity is unique, but is menaced by different drivers, particularly climate and land-use changes. In mainland Portugal, the highest mountain - Serra da Estrela - is one of the most important biodiversity hotspots, being classified as Natural Park since 1976. Many lepidopteran and odonate species, including rare and protected species, are known to occur in Serra da Estrela, but basic knowledge on their abundance, distribution and ecology is still lacking. Standardised sampling of these communities is crucial to provide valuable biological information to support short-term decision-making for conservation management, setting simultaneously the standards for mountain biodiversity monitoring aiming to tackle the effects of environmental change in the long-term.

New information

This study reports novel information on lepidopteran and odonate species diversity, distribution and abundance from Serra da Estrela Natural Park (Portugal). Seventy-two lepidopteran and 26 odonate species were sampled in this protected area, including the first findings of Apatura ilia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775), Macromia splendens (Pictet, 1843) and Vanessa virginiensis (Drury, 1773). New populations of Euphydrias aurinia (Rottemburg, 1775) and Oxygastra curtisii (Dale, 1834), protected species under the Habitats Directive, were found in this Natural Park and novel distribution and ecological data were collected for most species, including several rare species and subspecies [e.g. Aeshna juncea (Linnaeus, 1758), Coenonympha glycerion iphioides Staudinger, 1870, Cyaniris semiargus (Rottemburg, 1775) and Sympetrum flaveolum (Linnaeus, 1758)]. All data were collected using standardised sampling allowing its use as a baseline for biodiversity monitoring in Serra da Estrela.

Keywords

butterflies, Lepidoptera, damselflies, dragonflies, Odonata, elevation gradient, mountain lakes, protected areas, Habitats Directive

Introduction

Mountain ecosystems are crucial for global biodiversity conservation since they host high numbers of plant and animal species, including many rare, endemic and those of conservation concern (Hodkinson and Jackson 2005). During the last few decades, research and monitoring of mountain biodiversity has been key to unveiling the drivers of species diversity and community composition and to provide scientifically-supported guidance to manage these unique and fragile ecosystems (Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008, Ashton et al. 2011). For instance, the Global Mountain Biodiversity Assessment (GMBA) initiative has been key on the assessment, conservation and sustainable management of mountain biodiversity (see Payne et al. (2017)). This is extremely important as mountain ecosystems worldwide are menaced by various threats, such as global warming, species introductions, vegetation/land-use changes and water extraction, that often act synergistically (Schmeller 2022). Climate change is considered one of the most impactful threats to mountain biodiversity with many reports stating changes in species composition of mountain communities, upslope shifts of species ranges and even local extinctions in response to temperature increases (Sekercioglu et al. 2008, Chen 2009, Lenoir and Svenning 2015). In addition, human activities have historically played (and still play) an important role as drivers of biodiversity patterns in mountain ecosystems; often mountains supported intensive and/or extensive agricultural, forestry and livestock production practices, were subjected to frequent fires, water extraction and recreational activities. The biodiversity of Iberian mountains, including Serra da Estrela, face this same kind of threats (Wilson et al. 2007, Múrria 2020) and, due to the vulnerability of these ecosystems to environmental change, is key for implementing long-term biodiversity monitoring programmes to tackle changes in abiotic and biotic conditions and supporting decision-making for conservation management. Several invertebrate groups have been the target of biodiversity monitoring programmes in mountain ecosystems worldwide since they provide valuable information on the state of the environment in an effective and efficient way. Lepidopterans and (to a less extent) odonates are two invertebrate groups often selected in biodiversity monitoring since they have a well-known ecology and taxonomy, and are cost-effective to survey (Oertli 2008, Kessler 2011, Acquah-Lamptey et al. 2013, Gerlach et al. 2013, Zografou 2014). In this study, we provide novel information on lepidopteran and odonate species diversity, distribution and abundance from representative habitats of Serra da Estrela Natural Park (Portugal) following a standardised sampling protocol, aiming to set a reference work for biodiversity monitoring in this emblematic protected area.

General description

Purpose: 

We present new taxonomic, distribution and abundance data on the lepidopterans and odonates of Serra da Estrela Natural Park following an extensive survey of adult forms using standardised sampling. The data encompass the elevation gradient of Serra da Estrela, the highest mountain in mainland Portugal and includes information from a variety of habitat types (mountain streams, mountain lakes and montane vegetation) during two consecutive years (2013 and 2014).

Project description

Title: 

Biodiversity, endemic and protected species associated with mountain lakes and streams of Serra da Estrela

Personnel: 

Mário Boieiro, José Conde and Artur Serrano planned the project and designed the sampling strategy; Sandra Antunes, Albano Soares, Hugo Figueiredo, Ana Lopes, Eva Monteiro, Patrícia Garcia-Pereira, Carla Rego, José Conde and Mário Boieiro participated in fieldwork. Mário Boieiro and Paulo Borges performed the biodiversity data curation in Darwin Core format.

Study area description: 

The study took place in Serra da Estrela, the highest mountain in continental Portugal (with 1993 m). Serra da Estrela includes the western extreme of the Iberian Central System which is considered one of the main mountain systems in the Iberian Peninsula. Serra da Estrela is classified as Natural Park since 1976, is part of the Natura 2000 network and its upper areas are included in the Ramsar Convention (ICNF 2022). All study sites are included in the Serra da Estrela Natural Park, encompassing a considerable elevation gradient and habitat diversity. The study area is characterised by Atlantic and Mediterranean climates and different biogeographic regions, being an important area for biodiversity conservation, particularly for montane species (ICNF 2022).

Design description: 

Sampling of lepidopterans and odonates took place in three main habitat types, namely mountain streams, mountain lakes and montane vegetation (Fig. 1; Table 1). We sampled the margins of three mountain streams (Fervença, Caniça and Loriga) at three elevation levels (approximately 500, 1000 and 1500m) (Fig. 1a) and 18 mountain lakes (including both natural and artificial lakes), most of them being located in the Central Plateau of Serra da Estrela (Fig. 1b). Lepidopterans and odonates were also sampled from 12 sites of representative montane vegetation of Serra da Estrela, including Juniperus-, Erica- and Genista-dominated scrublands and Nardus-dominated grasslands (Fig. 1c). Overall, 39 sites were sampled during this study (Table 1).

Table 1.

List of the study sites with an indication of their location (in decimal degrees WGS84) and habitat-type.

Site

Habitat-type

Latitude

Longitude

Conchos

Montane vegetation

-7.61496

40.362301

Corgo das Mós

Montane vegetation

-7.57271

40.401299

Erva da Fome

Montane vegetation

-7.60325

40.391899

Fonte dos Perús

Montane vegetation

-7.62165

40.344002

Lagoacho

Montane vegetation

-7.61437

40.3932

Penha do Gato

Montane vegetation

-7.66434

40.350498

Redonda

Montane vegetation

-7.62864

40.374802

Rodeio Grande

Montane vegetation

-7.64252

40.341202

Seca

Montane vegetation

-7.63228

40.371101

Torre

Montane vegetation

-7.61836

40.317501

Vale das Éguas

Montane vegetation

-7.56813

40.3997

Vale de Perdiz

Montane vegetation

-7.5942

40.4081

Covão do Curral

Mountain lake

-7.63973

40.370899

Covão do Forno

Mountain lake

-7.63604

40.3689

Covão do Meio

Mountain lake

-7.63026

40.333199

Covão do Quelhas

Mountain lake

-7.62676

40.3279

Covão dos Conchos

Mountain lake

-7.60941

40.363701

Lagoa Comprida 1

Mountain lake

-7.64247

40.364101

Lagoa Comprida 2

Mountain lake

-7.62742

40.3591

Lagoa da Francelha

Mountain lake

-7.63331

40.3297

Lagoa do Ângelo

Mountain lake

-7.6327

40.3531

Lagoa Escura

Mountain lake

-7.63796

40.355099

Lagoa Redonda

Mountain lake

-7.6247

40.370201

Lagoa Seca

Mountain lake

-7.6312

40.3713

Lagoa Serrano

Mountain lake

-7.63142

40.3283

Lagoacho das Favas

Mountain lake

-7.63631

40.363602

Lagoacho SE

Mountain lake

-7.62153

40.3801

Lagoacho W

Mountain lake

-7.62385

40.383801

Vale do Rossim NE

Mountain lake

-7.58259

40.399502

Vale do Rossim SW

Mountain lake

-7.59169

40.396301

Cabeça

Mountain stream

-7.71926

40.318501

Loriga

Mountain stream

-7.67507

40.329201

Ponte de Jugais-Ribeira da Caniça

Mountain stream

-7.70396

40.3848

Ponte de Jugais-Rio Alva

Mountain stream

-7.706

40.384602

Porto do Boi

Mountain stream

-7.6756

40.371799

Ribeira da Fervença

Mountain stream

-7.5906

40.4039

Ribeira da Nave

Mountain stream

-7.6337

40.334202

Ribeira da Pragueira

Mountain stream

-7.65328

40.359501

Sabugueiro

Mountain stream

-7.6407

40.4063

Figure 1.

The three main habitat types sampled in this study.

aMountain stream (Ribeira de Loriga) in Serra da Estrela (photo by Mário Boieiro).  
bMountain lake (Lagoa Redonda) in Serra da Estrela (photo by José Conde).  
cMontane vegetation (near Lagoa Seca) in Serra da Estrela (photo by José Conde).  
Funding: 

This work was financed by the Energias de Portugal (EDP) Fund for Biodiversity 2011 through project "Biodiversidade, endemismos e espécies protegidas associadas às lagoas e cursos de água da Serra da Estrela: valorização de um século de aproveitamento hidroeléctrico". Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia funded APC through project UIDB/00329/2020–2024 and supported MB by contract DL57/2016/CP1375/CT0001.

Sampling methods

Description: 

The study was carried out in Serra da Estrela Natural Park encompassing the elevation gradient and the diversity of habitats of this protected area.

Sampling description: 

Lepidopterans and odonates were sampled using a standardised methodology to ensure the possibility of biodiversity data comparison between study sites and to set a reference for mountain biodiversity monitoring in Serra da Estrela Natural Park. Insect sampling followed the Pollard and Yates methodology (Pollard and Yates 1993): a 150 m linear transect was set in each study site and adult insects of the target groups were recorded when observed at a distance of up to 5 m ahead of the researcher and 2.5 m from each side. The insects were captured with the help of a sweeping net only in case of need to confirm their species identity, being immediately released afterwards. Sampling was carried out between 10 am and 6 pm and under favourable climatic conditions (i.e. sampling was not performed under rainy, windy, cloudy and hot weather conditions). The data were collected during the seasonal peak of activity of adult lepidopterans and odonates in Serra da Estrela in two consecutive years (2013 and 2014).

Quality control: 

Lepidopterans and odonates were identified by trained taxonomists (Albano Soares, Hugo Figueiredo and Sandra Antunes) during fieldwork.

Geographic coverage

Description: 

Serra da Estrela Natural Park, Portugal

Coordinates: 

Latitude; Longitude: -7.886433ºW to -7.200313.

Taxonomic coverage

Taxa included:
Rank Scientific Name Common Name
order Odonata odonates; dragonflies and damselflies
order Lepidoptera lepidopterans; butterflies

Temporal coverage

Notes: 

The data were collected during the seasonal peak of activity of adult lepidopterans and odonates in Serra da Estrela, which lasts from late spring to late summer. Data were collected during two consecutive years: from June to September 2013 and from July to September 2014.

Usage licence

Usage licence: 
Creative Commons Public Domain Waiver (CC-Zero)

Data resources

Data package title: 
Invertebrate biodiversity of Serra da Estrela Natural Park - EDP Biodiversity Fund
Number of data sets: 
4
Data set name: 
Standardised sampling of lepidopterans (Lepidoptera) in Serra da Estrela (Portugal) - 2013 and 2014 - Event Table
Character set: 
UTF-8
Download URL: 
http://ipt.gbif.pt/ipt/resource?r=lepidoptera_estrela
Data format: 
Darwin Core
Data format version: 
1.6
Description: 

The dataset was published in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility platform, GBIF (Boieiro 2022a). The following data table includes all the records for which a taxonomic identification of the species was possible. The dataset submitted to GBIF is structured as a sample event dataset that has been published as a Darwin Core Archive (DwCA), which is a standardised format for sharing biodiversity data as a set of one or more data tables. The core data file contains 245 records (eventID). This IPT (Integrated Publishing Toolkit) archives the data and thus serves as the data repository. The data and resource metadata are available for download in the Portuguese GBIF Portal IPT (Boieiro 2022a).

Column label Column description
id Unique identification code for sampling event data.
eventID Identifier of the events, unique for the dataset.
samplingProtocol The sampling protocol used to capture the species.
sampleSizeValue The numeric amount of time spent in each sampling.
sampleSizeUnit The unit of the sample size value.
samplingEffort The amount of effort expended during an Event.
eventDate Date or date range the record was collected.
year The four-digit year in which the Event occurred, according to the Common Era Calendar.
month The integer month in which the Event occurred.
day The integer day of the month on which the Event occurred.
habitat The habitat from which the sample was obtained.
locationID Identifier of the location.
country Country of the sampling site (in this case, Portugal).
countryCode ISO code of the country of the sampling site (PT - Portugal).
municipality Municipality of the sampling site.
locality Name of the locality.
minimumElevationInMetres The lower limit of the range of elevation (altitude, usually above sea level), in metres.
decimalLatitude Approximate centre point decimal latitude of the field site in GPS coordinates.
decimalLongitude Approximate centre point decimal longitude of the field site in GPS coordinates.
geodeticDatum The ellipsoid, geodetic datum or spatial reference system (SRS) upon which the geographic coordinates given in decimalLatitude and decimalLongitude are based.
coordinateUncertaintyInMetres Uncertainty of the coordinates of the centre of the sampling plot, in metres.
coordinatePrecision Precision of the coordinates.
georeferenceSources A list (concatenated and separated) of maps, gazetteers or other resources used to georeference the Location, described specifically enough to allow anyone in the future to use the same resources.
verbatimLatitude The verbatim original latitude of the Location.
verbatimLongitude The verbatim original longitude of the Location.
verbatimSRS The ellipsoid, geodetic datum or spatial reference system (SRS) upon which coordinates given in verbatimLatitude and verbatimLongitude or verbatimCoordinates are based.
Data set name: 
Standardised sampling of lepidopterans (Lepidoptera) in Serra da Estrela (Portugal) - 2013 and 2014 - Occurrence Table
Character set: 
UTF
Download URL: 
http://ipt.gbif.pt/ipt/resource?r=lepidoptera_estrela
Data format: 
Darwin Core
Data format version: 
1.6
Description: 

The dataset was published in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility platform, GBIF (Boieiro 2022a). The following data table includes all the records for which a taxonomic identification of the species was possible. The dataset submitted to GBIF is structured as an occurrence table that has been published as a Darwin Core Archive (DwCA), which is a standardised format for sharing biodiversity data as a set of one or more data tables. The core data file contains 1614 records (occurrenceID). This IPT (Integrated Publishing Toolkit) archives the data and thus serves as the data repository. The data and resource metadata are available for download in the Portuguese GBIF Portal IPT (Boieiro 2022a).

Column label Column description
id Unique identification code for species abundance data. Equivalent here to eventID.
type The nature or genre of the resource, as defined by the Darwin Core standard.
licence Reference to the licence under which the record is published (CC-BY) 4.0.
institutionID The identity of the institution publishing the data.
institutionCode The identity of the collection publishing the data.
basisOfRecord The nature of the data record.
occurrenceID Identifier of the record, coded as a global unique identifier.
recordedBy A list (concatenated and separated) of names of people, groups or organisations who performed the sampling in the field.
organismQuantity A number or enumeration value for the quantity of organisms.
organismQuantityType The type of quantification system used for the quantity of organisms.
lifeStage The life stage of the organisms captured.
establishmentMeans The process of establishment of the species in the location, using a controlled vocabulary: 'native', 'introduced', 'endemic', "unknown".
eventID Identifier of the events, unique for the dataset.
identifiedBy A list (concatenated and separated) of names of people, groups or organisations who assigned the Taxon to the subject.
dateIdentified The date on which the subject was determined as representing the Taxon.
scientificName Complete scientific name including author and year.
kingdom Kingdom name.
phylum Phylum name.
class Class name.
order Order name.
family Family name.
genus Genus name.
specificEpithet Specific epithet.
infraspecificEpithet Subspecies epithet.
taxonRank Lowest taxonomic rank of the record.
scientificNameAuthorship Name of the author of the lowest taxon rank included in the record.
Data set name: 
Standardised sampling of odonates (Odonata) in Serra da Estrela (Portugal) - 2013 and 2014 - Event Table
Character set: 
UTF-8
Data format: 
Darwin Core
Data format version: 
1.6
Description: 

The dataset was published in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility platform, GBIF (Boieiro 2022b). The following data table includes all the records for which a taxonomic identification of the species was possible. The dataset submitted to GBIF is structured as a sample event dataset that has been published as a Darwin Core Archive (DwCA), which is a standardised format for sharing biodiversity data as a set of one or more data tables. The core data file contains 172 records (eventID). This IPT (Integrated Publishing Toolkit) archives the data and thus serves as the data repository. The data and resource metadata are available for download in the Portuguese GBIF Portal IPT (Boieiro 2022b).

Column label Column description
id Unique identification code for sampling event data.
eventID Identifier of the events, unique for the dataset.
samplingProtocol The sampling protocol used to capture the species.
sampleSizeValue The numeric amount of time spent in each sampling.
sampleSizeUnit The unit of the sample size value.
samplingEffort The amount of effort expended during an Event.
eventDate Date or date range the record was collected.
year The four-digit year in which the Event occurred, according to the Common Era Calendar.
month The integer month in which the Event occurred.
day The integer day of the month on which the Event occurred.
habitat The habitat from which the sample was obtained.
locationID Identifier of the location.
country Country of the sampling site (in this case Portugal).
countryCode ISO code of the country of the sampling site.
municipality Municipality of the sampling site.
locality Name of the locality.
minimumElevationInMetres The lower limit of the range of elevation (altitude, usually above sea level), in metres.
decimalLatitude Approximate centre point decimal latitude of the field site in GPS coordinates.
decimalLongitude Approximate centre point decimal longitude of the field site in GPS coordinates.
geodeticDatum The ellipsoid, geodetic datum or spatial reference system (SRS) upon which the geographic coordinates given in decimalLatitude and decimalLongitude are based.
coordinateUncertaintyInMeters Uncertainty of the coordinates of the centre of the sampling plot, in metres.
coordinatePrecision Precision of the coordinates.
georeferenceSources A list (concatenated and separated) of maps, gazetteers or other resources used to georeference the Location, described specifically enough to allow anyone in the future to use the same resources.
verbatimLatitude The verbatim original latitude of the Location.
verbatimLongitude The verbatim original longitude of the Location.
verbatimSRS The ellipsoid, geodetic datum or spatial reference system (SRS) upon which coordinates given in verbatimLatitude and verbatimLongitude or verbatimCoordinates are based.
Data set name: 
Standardised sampling of odonates (Odonata) in Serra da Estrela (Portugal) - 2013 and 2014 - Occurrence Table
Character set: 
UTF-8
Download URL: 
http://ipt.gbif.pt/ipt/resource?r=odonata_estrela_portugal
Data format: 
Darwin Core
Data format version: 
1.6
Description: 

The dataset was published in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility platform, GBIF (Boieiro 2022b). The following data table includes all the records for which a taxonomic identification of the species was possible. The dataset submitted to GBIF is structured as an occurrence table that has been published as a Darwin Core Archive (DwCA), which is a standardised format for sharing biodiversity data as a set of one or more data tables. The core data file contains 520 records (occurrenceID). This IPT (Integrated Publishing Toolkit) archives the data and thus serves as the data repository. The data and resource metadata are available for download in the Portuguese GBIF Portal IPT (Boieiro 2022b).

Column label Column description
id Unique identification code for species abundance data. Equivalent here to eventID.
type The nature or genre of the resource, as defined by the Darwin Core standard.
licence Reference to the licence under which the record is published (CC-BY) 4.0.
institutionID The identity of the institution publishing the data.
institutionCode The identity of the collection publishing the data.
basisOfRecord The nature of the data record.
occurrenceID Identifier of the record, coded as a global unique identifier.
recordedBy A list (concatenated and separated) of names of people, groups or organisations who performed the sampling in the field.
organismQuantity A number or enumeration value for the quantity of organisms.
organismQuantityType The type of quantification system used for the quantity of organisms.
lifeStage The life stage of the organisms captured.
establishmentMeans The process of establishment of the species in the location, using a controlled vocabulary: 'native', 'introduced', 'endemic', "unknown".
eventID Identifier of the events, unique for the dataset.
identifiedBy A list (concatenated and separated) of names of people, groups or organisations who assigned the Taxon to the subject.
dateIdentified The date on which the subject was determined as representing the Taxon.
scientificName Complete scientific name including author and year.
kingdom Kingdom name.
phylum Phylum name.
class Class name.
order Order name.
family Family name.
genus Genus name.
specificEpithet Specific epithet.
taxonRank Lowest taxonomic rank of the record.
scientificNameAuthorship Name of the author of the lowest taxon rank included in the record.

Additional information

Results

During the two-year study, we observed 7339 adult insects from 98 species of the two target groups (Lepidoptera and Odonata) in Serra da Estrela Natural Park. Overall, we identified 72 lepidopteran species (3971 observed individuals) from five different families (Table 2) and 26 odonate species (3368 observed individuals) from ten different families (Table 3), being 11 zygopterans and the remaining 15 anisopterans. We report for the first time the finding of Apatura ilia, Macromia splendens and Vanessa virginiensis in this protected area, jointly with the location of new populations of the Habitats Directive protected species Euphydrias aurinia and Oxygastra curtisii (Fig. 2a).

Table 2.

Species abundance and occupancy of lepidopterans from the study sites in Serra da Estrela.

Family Species/Subspecies Abundance Occupancy
Hesperiidae Hesperia comma (Linnaeus, 1758) 132 29
Hesperiidae Ochlodes sylvanus (Esper, 1777) 4 3
Hesperiidae Pyrgus malvoides (Elwes & Edwards, 1897) 15 10
Hesperiidae Thymelicus acteon (Rottemburg, 1775) 3 2
Hesperiidae Thymelicus lineola (Ochsenheimer, 1808) 11 4
Hesperiidae Thymelicus sylvestris (Poda, 1761) 44 14
Papilionidae Iphiclides feisthamelii (Duponchel, 1832) 11 7
Pieridae Anthocharis cardamines (Linnaeus, 1758) 5 1
Pieridae Colias croceus (Geoffroy, 1785) 256 38
Pieridae Gonepteryx rhamni (Linnaeus, 1758) 61 23
Pieridae Leptidea sinapis (Linnaeus, 1758) 69 18
Pieridae Pieris brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758) 14 9
Pieridae Pieris napi (Linnaeus, 1758) 58 12
Pieridae Pieris rapae (Linnaeus, 1758) 270 36
Pieridae Pontia daplidice (Linnaeus, 1758) 71 20
Lycaenidae Aricia cramera Eschscholtz, 1821 59 20
Lycaenidae Callophrys rubi (Linnaeus, 1758) 2 2
Lycaenidae Celastrina argiolus (Linnaeus, 1758) 107 32
Lycaenidae Cyaniris semiargus (Rottemburg, 1775) 63 9
Lycaenidae Glaucopsyche melanops (Boisduval, 1828) 2 1
Lycaenidae Laeosopis roboris (Esper, 1789) 9 3
Lycaenidae Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus, 1767) 18 9
Lycaenidae Leptotes pirithous (Linnaeus, 1767) 93 25
Lycaenidae Lycaena alciphron (Rottemburg, 1775) 22 16
Lycaenidae Lycaena bleusei Oberthur, 1884 6 2
Lycaenidae Lycaena phlaeas (Linnaeus, 1761) 81 26
Lycaenidae Lycaena tityrus (Poda, 1761) 3 2
Lycaenidae Plebejus argus (Linnaeus, 1758) 336 31
Lycaenidae Polyommatus icarus (Rottemburg, 1775) 73 20
Lycaenidae Satyrium esculi (Hübner, 1804) 2 1
Lycaenidae Satyrium spini (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) 25 5
Nymphalidae Aglais io (Linnaeus, 1758) 12 9
Nymphalidae Aglais urticae (Linnaeus, 1758) 24 8
Nymphalidae Apatura ilia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) 1 1
Nymphalidae Argynnis adippe (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) 61 16
Nymphalidae Argynnis aglaja (Linnaeus, 1758) 6 4
Nymphalidae Argynnis pandora (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) 179 34
Nymphalidae Argynnis paphia (Linnaeus, 1758) 9 6
Nymphalidae Brintesia circe (Fabricius, 1775) 115 31
Nymphalidae Charaxes jasius (Linnaeus, 1767) 1 1
Nymphalidae Coenonympha dorus (Esper, 1782) 10 1
Nymphalidae Coenonympha glycerion iphioides Staudinger, 1870 16 7
Nymphalidae Coenonympha pamphilus (Linnaeus, 1758) 8 7
Nymphalidae Euphydryas aurinia (Rottemburg, 1775) 6 1
Nymphalidae Hipparchia fidia (Linnaeus, 1767) 27 5
Nymphalidae Hipparchia hermione (Linnaeus, 1764) 149 32
Nymphalidae Hipparchia semele (Linnaeus, 1758) 89 25
Nymphalidae Hipparchia statilinus (Hufnagel, 1766) 62 15
Nymphalidae Hyponephele lycaon (Rottemburg, 1775) 71 21
Nymphalidae Issoria lathonia (Linnaeus, 1758) 106 28
Nymphalidae Lasiommata maera (Linnaeus, 1758) 15 2
Nymphalidae Lasiommata megera (Linnaeus, 1767) 63 24
Nymphalidae Limenitis reducta Staudinger, 1901 9 4
Nymphalidae Maniola jurtina (Linnaeus, 1758) 25 7
Nymphalidae Melanargia lachesis (Hübner, 1790) 312 26
Nymphalidae Melanargia occitanica (Esper, 1793) 3 1
Nymphalidae Melanargia russiae (Esper, 1783) 11 3
Nymphalidae Melitaea deione (Geyer, 1832) 21 8
Nymphalidae Melitaea nevadensis Oberthür, 1904 42 12
Nymphalidae Melitaea parthenoides Keferstein, 1851 7 3
Nymphalidae Melitaea phoebe (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) 7 2
Nymphalidae Melitaea trivia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) 8 2
Nymphalidae Nymphalis antiopa (Linnaeus, 1758) 13 12
Nymphalidae Nymphalis polychloros (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 1
Nymphalidae Pararge aegeria (Linnaeus, 1758) 90 16
Nymphalidae Polygonia c-album (Linnaeus, 1758) 19 3
Nymphalidae Pyronia cecilia (Vallantin, 1894) 2 2
Nymphalidae Pyronia tithonus (Linnaeus, 1767) 103 15
Nymphalidae Satyrus actaea (Esper, 1781) 268 30
Nymphalidae Vanessa atalanta (Linnaeus, 1758) 4 3
Nymphalidae Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758) 70 19
Nymphalidae Vanessa virginiensis (Drury, 1773) 1 1
Table 3.

Species abundance and occupancy of odonates from the study sites in Serra da Estrela.

Family Species Abundance Occupancy
Calopterygidae Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis (Vander Linden, 1825) 5 1
Calopterygidae Calopteryx virgo (Linnaeus, 1758) 203 12
Calopterygidae Calopteryx xanthostoma (Charpentier, 1825) 12 1
Lestidae Lestes dryas Kirby, 1890 374 19
Lestidae Lestes virens (Charpentier, 1825) 335 15
Lestidae Lestes viridis (Vander Linden, 1825) 5 2
Coenagrionidae Ceriagrion tenellum (de Villers, 1789) 1 1
Coenagrionidae Enallagma cyathigerum (Charpentier, 1840) 579 16
Coenagrionidae Ischnura graellsii (Rambur, 1842) 10 5
Coenagrionidae Pyrrosoma nymphula (Sulzer, 1776) 71 13
Platycnemididae Platycnemis latipes Rambur, 1842 12 3
Aeshnidae Aeshna cyanea (Müller, 1764) 26 12
Aeshnidae Aeshna juncea (Linnaeus, 1758) 183 19
Aeshnidae Anax imperator Leach, 1815 28 12
Aeshnidae Boyeria irene McLachlan, 1896 104 7
Gomphidae Onychogomphus uncatus (Charpentier, 1840) 54 7
Cordulegastridae Cordulegaster boltonii (Donovan, 1807) 182 16
Corduliidae Oxygastra curtisii (Dale, 1834) 2 1
Macromiidae Macromia splendens (Pictet, 1843) 4 1
Libellulidae Libellula depressa Linnaeus, 1758 1 1
Libellulidae Libellula quadrimaculata Linnaeus, 1758 825 22
Libellulidae Orthetrum coerulescens (Fabricius, 1798) 7 3
Libellulidae Sympetrum flaveolum (Linnaeus, 1758) 190 12
Libellulidae Sympetrum fonscolombii (Selys, 1840) 13 7
Libellulidae Sympetrum sanguineum (Müller, 1764) 140 12
Libellulidae Sympetrum striolatum (Charpentier, 1840) 2 2
Figure 2.

Some interesting findings from this study in Serra da Estrela.

aThe protected butterfly Euphydrias aurinia (photo by José Conde).  
bThe butterfly Coenonympha glycerion iphioides (photo by Albano Soares).  
cThe dragonfly Sympetrum flaveolum (photo by José Conde).  
dThe dragonfly Aeshna juncea (photo by Albano Soares).  

Coenonympha glycerion iphioides and Cyaniris semiargus, both considered threatened by extinction in Portugal (Maravalhas 2003), occurred in several study sites in Serra da Estrela (Fig. 2b). Aeshna juncea and Sympetrum flaveolum, two narrow-range odonate species in Portugal and both classified as threatened (Maravalhas and Soares 2013), were found in several sites, mostly located in the Central Plateau of Serra da Estrela (Fig. 2c, d). Several lepidopteran and odonate species (including the newly-recorded species Apatura ilia, Macromia splendens and Vanessa virginiensis) were found to be rare in the study area, occurring in low abundance in just a few sites.

The species abundance distributions of the two study groups show a bimodal pattern with high number of species in moderately low and moderately high abundance classes; fewer species were found to be low- or high-abundant (Fig. 3a). Five lepidopterans, including the montane Satyrus actaea (Esper, 1781), occurred in high abundance (> 256 individuals) in the study area and two odonates [Enallagma cyathigerum (Charpentier, 1840) and Libellula quadrimaculata Linnaeus, 1758] were also very abundant (> 512 individuals). The occupancy frequency distributions of the two study groups followed a common pattern: most species were found in a few number of sites and a scarce number of species was widespread (Fig. 3b). Only two lepidopterans, Colias croceus (Geoffroy, 1785) and Pieris rapae (Linnaeus, 1758) were found in most study sites (respectively 38 and 36, out of 39).

Figure 3.

Species abundance distributions (SADs) and occupancy frequency distributions (OFDs) of lepidopterans and odonates from the study sites in Serra da Estrela.

aSADs of lepidopterans and odonates. Data were binned in modified log2 abundance classes following Gray et al. (2006) 
bOFDs of lepidopterans and odonates. Data were grouped in site occupancy frequency classes, each comprising 12.5% of the total number of sampling locations.  

Average values of lepidopteran and odonate species richness were higher in mountain streams and lakes (Fig. 4). Fewer species were detected in sites in montane vegetation.

Figure 4.  

Average number (+SD) of lepidopteran and odonate species found in sites of the three main habitat types.

Discussion

The diversity of lepidopteran and odonate species in Serra da Estrela is one of the highest in Portugal since the elevation gradient of this mountain determines marked differences in abiotic and biotic conditions at relatively short distances, thus driving habitat diversity, species distributions and spatial patterns of biodiversity (Ferreira et al. 2009). Additionally, due to its geophysical characteristics, Serra da Estrela has several montane habitat types that are exclusive or poorly represented in the country (Jansen 2002), where we can find range-restricted species, such as Aeshna juncea, Sympetrum flaveolum and Satyrus actaea (Maravalhas 2003, Maravalhas and Soares 2013).

During the two-year study, we sampled the lepidopteran and odonate communities from 39 sites in Serra da Estrela Natural Park, improving the species inventory by recording three new species to this protected area and collecting novel data on species abundance, distribution and ecology for nearly one hundred species, including two protected under the Habitats Directive. Interestingly, a number of lepidopteran and odonate species were found in low abundance in a few number of sites (Tables 2, 3; Fig. 3), suggesting the need to further investigate the distribution and population size of these species in Serra da Estrela. Despite the occurrence of several odonate and lepidopteran species of conservation concern in Serra da Estrela (both listed in the Habitats Directive or classified as threatened by national experts, see Maravalhas (2003), Maravalhas and Soares (2013)), we are unaware of studies targeting the collection of crucial baseline data on species abundance, distribution and threats that are much needed to support their conservation in this Natural Park. In addition, it will be important to sample a higher number of sites and habitats in this large protected area (with nearly 90,000 ha) to ascertain the rarity of several species that may in fact be undersampled. The combined analysis of species abundance distributions and occupancy frequency distributions also highlighted a few species that are relatively abundant and widespread in Serra da Estrela, like the odonates Enallagma cyathigerum and Libellula quadrimaculata and the lepidopterans Colias croceus and Pieris rapae. These species are common in the country (Maravalhas 2003, Maravalhas and Soares 2013) and seem to cope with the wide variety of ecological conditions through the elevation gradient of Serra da Estrela. Not surprisingly, we found a higher average number of odonate and lepidopteran species in mountain streams and lakes than in montane vegetation. Odonates depend on these aquatic ecosystems for reproduction and larvae development, while lepidopterans seem to benefit from a larger diversity of host plants.

Our study presents baseline information on species abundance and distribution following standardised sampling in representative habitats of Serra da Estrela, aiming to set a reference for long-term monitoring of biodiversity in this mountain. The biodiversity of Serra da Estrela faces several threats, particularly due to climate change, wildfires, the spread of invasive species and excessive water extraction, all of which are crucial for assessing their impact on montane plant and animal communities. Both odonates and lepidopterans are important bioindicators and many studies showed that they may provide valuable information as global change sentinels since their populations respond quickly to environmental change and at very fine scales (Hassall 2015, Hill et al. 2021).

Acknowledgements

We thank Centro de Interpretação da Serra da Estrela (CISE) for providing logistic support to team members and to the Instituto da Conservação da Natureza e das Florestas (ICNF) for allowing insect sampling in Serra da Estrela Natural Park. Open Access was funded by the project FCT-UIDB/00329/2020-2024 (Thematic Line 1 – integrated ecological assessment of environmental change on biodiversity).

Author contributions

Conceptualization, M.B., J.C. and A.R.M.S.; investigation, S.A., A.S., H.F., A.L., E.M., P.G.P., C.R., J.C. and M.B.; resources, M.B., J.C. and A.R.M.S.; data curation, M.B. and P.A.V.B.; writing - original draft preparation, M.B.; writing - review and editing, M.B., J.C., C.R., A.S., S.A., H.F., A.L., E.M., P.G.P., P.A.V.B. and A.R.M.S.; supervision, M.B., J.C. and A.R.M.S.; project administration, M.B., J.C. and A.R.M.S.; funding acquisition, M.B., J.C. and A.R.M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

References

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